Schools Should Do More For Accommodate Disabled Students

Colleges Should Do More to Accommodate Disabled Students In recent years, the number of disabled students who are seeking a college education has gone on an uphill climb. Most colleges have agreed to make accommodations that fit the needs of these students. However, some of these students find that necessary accommodations which make learning accessible and possible for them are lacking. Disabled students can be willing and able to pursue a college education as much as those who are not disabled, and they earn more money if they graduate college compared to those who do not. They simply need accommodations based on their needs in order to be successful, and colleges can make these accommodations without damaging the integrity of the courses (Lewin). Going too far would be having somebody else take a course for disabled students and earning credits for them. With present accommodations, students can access some buildings on campus and receive help such as notes taken for them if they are dyslexic or cannot hear the lectures properly. For all these reasons, colleges have not gone too far to accommodate students with disabilities and should do more to make them feel welcome at college. An implication that colleges have not gone too far in accommodating students with disabilities is that some students with disabilities cannot get the support that they need. Wheelchair ramps have been installed, accessible bathrooms constructed, and note-takers have been provided at someShow MoreRelatedAre Colleges Gone Too Far For Accommodate Students With Disabilities?1087 Words   |  5 Pages Have Colleges Gone Too Far to Accommodate Students with Disabilities? The former US President Bill Clinton said, â€Å"New information and communications technologies can improve the quality of life for people with disabilities, but only if such technologies are designed from the beginning, so that everyone can use them.† Discussing disabilities in general will take longer than one day. I am going to talk about physical disabilities .As the Longman dictionary defines physicalRead MoreThe Disability Of A Disabled Person Feeling Alone Essay1315 Words   |  6 Pagesintellectual and more. You can find unequal treatment of people with disabilities in schools, society and work setting, leading to isolation, low self-esteem, and low self-worth of these individuals. Most often they are excluded from social events since society believe they do not fit into the social norms. Many struggles to find their identity within an organization and when possible will hide their disability from others to protect themselves from criticism or to keep the ir jobs. In schools, they areRead MoreEffective Methods For Accommodating Students With Disabilities Essay1479 Words   |  6 PagesResearch Question: What are effective methods for accommodating students’ with disabilities in inclusive settings in elementary schools? Preface The right to equal education should be in reach of all students’ regardless of their educational needs and backgrounds. The barriers that students’ with disabilities face are evident in today’s public school education. We as educators sometimes ignore the capabilities of some of our disabled students’ and impede them from achieving their fullest potential. InclusiveRead MoreA Teacher s View And Experience With Children With Learning Disabilities891 Words   |  4 PagesEvery student is unique and learns differently from everyone else. An important part of a teacher’s job, especially in elementary school, is to identify how each child learns best and help them to achieve success. As the years progress more and more students are being diagnosed with some sort of learning disability. A learning disability is a neurological disorder that affects the way a person processes information. I believe that it is vital that all teachers learn how to accommodat e learning disabledRead MoreBeing A Special Education Teacher879 Words   |  4 PagesMillions of children now a day are being identified as â€Å"disabled children.† Over the semester I have been enriched with information that will stick with me throughout my teachings. When I tell family and friends that I am studying to be a special education teacher they go â€Å"wow you must be a really patient person.† I feel like it takes a special person to have the passion and patients for these children. This course has made me more excited to be able to move on next semester and start my clincincalsRead MoreBenefits Of Creating Inclusive Programs1545 Words   |  7 Pagesunity and understanding. For these reasons, the special needs population require more public awareness through inclusion programs, creating an adaptive community, and focused government support. There are many benefits to creating inclusive programs but the most important are the personal benefits that people gain. First, though, what is inclusion? Inclusion is defined by research associates for Services of School Improvement with this quote by E. J. Erwin: â€Å"The true essence of inclusion is basedRead MoreThe Disabled in Academic Field Essay1565 Words   |  7 PagesThe Disabled in Academic Field While some colleges and universities offer at least some accommodations for students with different disabilities, more should be done to support these students to ensure that they are successful throughout college and throughout life. All schools should have some type of accommodations, whether big or small, so they do not limit the education options of a potential student with disabilities. A future student may have found a perfect program at a particular college;Read MoreMainstreaming of Learning Disabled into Regular Classroom1083 Words   |  5 Pageschose to present relates to the mainstreaming of the learning disabled into a regular classroom. The portrayal that I am going to use will be one of a veteran teacher who will be mainstreaming learning disabled into her classroom. I hope that you find this appropriate and fulfilling as I did. Twenty year veteran teacher, whom we will call Mrs. H., has been told that her classroom is soon to be mainstreamed with learning disabled students. Mrs. H is not very agreeable to this idea, yet she knowsRead MoreInclusion of Students with Learning Disabilities Essay1618 Words   |  7 Pagesinclusion can be defined as the placement of disabled children in a general classroom setting for the entire school day and two, inclusion can be defined as the placement of disabled students into a general classroom setting for part of the day while they are placed in a special setting during the other part of the day (Spafford and Grosser, 1998). Parents and teachers have been debating the issue of full inclusion of disabled students in public schools since the passing of the Education for all HandicappedRead MoreThe Existence Of Services For Students With Milder Levels Of Impairment1062 Words   |  5 Pages1. The existence of services for students with milder levels of impairment is a re latively recent occurrence. Why do you think this is so? The right of entry to education resources is more than uncomplicated admission to a college. The right to use means to provide students with the devices they will need to be victorious in higher learning. Students with a recognized disability ought to be no omission. In reality, Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and the Americans with Disabilities

Relationship Satisfaction Is An Important Part Of Romantic...

Relationship satisfaction is an important part of romantic relationships. A lack of satisfaction can lead to consequences in other areas of life and eventually, the destruction of the relationship. For example, job performance is heavily influenced by romantic relationship satisfaction. In a study by Greenhaus and Beutell (1985), they argued that poor satisfaction leads to poor job performance and vice versa. They stated this was to because these two spheres are â€Å"interdependent.† Satisfaction can also influence quality of health. Conflict in a marital relationship is associated with higher heart rates and blood pressure (Broadwell Light, 1999; Ewart, Taylor, Kaemer Agras, 1991; Flor, Breitenstein, Birbaumer Furst 1995; Frankish Linden, 1996; Kiecolt-Glaser, 1993; Mayne, O’Leary, McCrady, Contrada Labouvie, 1997; Morell Apple, 1990; Shwartz, Slater Birchler, 1994; Thomsen Gilbert, 1998). It is also strongly associated with depression and depressed syndromes (Beach, Fincham Katz, 1998; Fincham Beach, 1999). This relationship between marital conflict and depression seems to be bidirectional meaning depression is not only a result of conflict but also is caused by the conflict (Beach, et. al., 1998; Fincham Beach, 1999). Because a lack of relationship satisfaction can negatively affect so many important areas of life, it is important to understand what influences the level of satisfaction held in romantic relationships. One factor that has been shown toShow MoreRelatedRelational Theory Of Romantic Relationships1336 Words   |  6 Pagessituation that has been brought to the attention of many relational theorists. Studies have shown romantic relationships are challenged and go through various stages of relational maintenance that may not always be positive. However, the conceptualization of negativity in romantic relationships is often dismissed. As a society, there has been the glorification of love and how romantic relationships should play out. Whether it is through the representations featured in literature, film, music or otherRead MoreEssay On Social Anxiety1134 Words   |  5 PagesAnxiety, Relationships, and What to Do Introduction Social anxiety disorder is one of the most common mental illnesses in the United States. Chances are you know somebody who has dealt with this issue (Kessler, etc., 2005) because it causes one-third of the population to experience distress or disability. It can affect quality of life by generating fear of social situations and resulting in social withdrawal. One of the most central aspects of human life is having close relationships — particularlyRead MoreRelationship Between Relationships And Relationships1236 Words   |  5 PagesIn this paper I will be discussing romantic relationship, but first I feel we need to go over what a relationship is in the first place to see the difference between the two. Then I will define what I think a romantic relationship is. There are many different ways that someone could define relationship, but according to the Bella DePaulo from psychology today the definition for relationship is something that â€Å"covers all sorts of human connec tions, including ties to friends, parents, children, siblingsRead MoreHow Does Communication Affect Relationships? Essay1736 Words   |  7 PagesCommunication is one of the most important aspects in romantic relationships and different communication styles can affect relationships differently. Relationships can be both positively and negatively affected depending on the level of communication between the partners. This literature review will first define romantic relationships and explore what exactly happens in the development of these relationships. From the research found, individual’s age or sex did not necessarily affect the differencesRead MoreBiography Of John Van Epp s Ram Plan1701 Words   |  7 PagesRAM Plan (Relationship Attachment Model) which is an interactive model developed to illustration parts of relationships that create important connections. Included in the model is: Know, Trust, Rely, Commit and Touch. â€Å"The five fundamental dynamics are the depth to which you know, trust, rely on, have a commitment to, and have sexual involvement with another person. The RAM portrays these five dynamics in a way that explains their unique contributions to the bond developed in a relationship, as wellRead MoreThe Brain Is Wider Than The Sky1416 Words   |  6 Pagesfathom today. This mental state, depression has affected countless people throughout time. To get to our central point, depression causes deterioration in relationships, especially romantic ones. To understand how to mend relationships and build ourselves up as a community, we need to begin a discussion about depression within romantic relationships. It’s time to offer solutions and open communications with one another to help each other in this very human struggle. Depression affects 350 millionRead MoreSexual Satisfaction And Relationship Satisfaction700 Words   |  3 Pagesfundamental for most romantic relationships, but sexual gratification and relationship satisfaction have often been examined separately. In more recent years researchers have explored the association between sexual satisfaction and relationship satisfaction to gain a better understanding of how couples can obtain happy stable relationship (Schmiedeberg Schrà ¶der 2016). The purpose of this literature review is to explore the connection between sexual satisfaction and relationship satisfaction, as well asRead MoreThe Effects Of Personal Attachment Style On Romantic Relationship Satisfaction1718 Words   |  7 PagesStyle on Romantic Relationship Satisfaction Our earliest relationships in life can be deeply formative in shaping our development. Created by John Bowlby, attachment theory relates the importance of attachment in regards to personal development. According to Bowlby, attachment is the leading factor in our ability to form and maintain relationships as adults (Levy 2012, pg. 157). As human beings, we need to feel as if we belong (Cherry, 2016). We find this belongingness in our relationships and attachmentsRead MoreThe Priming Of Attachment Style And The Effects On Romantic Relationship Satisfaction1734 Words   |  7 PagesStyle and Relationship Satisfaction: The Priming of Attachment Style and the Effects on Romantic Relationship Satisfaction Milynn C. Scheer Point Loma Nazarene University â€Æ' Introduction Our earliest relationships in life can be deeply formative in shaping our development. Created by John Bowlby, attachment theory relates the importance of attachment in regards to personal development. According to Bowlby, attachment is the leading factor in our ability to form and maintain relationships as adultsRead MoreRelationship Between Long Distance Relationships1588 Words   |  7 PagesDespite the fact that relationships can be troubling, stressful, and even deadly, most of us are aware that we need relationships with others and that the quality of our lives depends on those relationships whether it is from friends or romantic partners. With the development of technology the evolution of long distance dating relationships are transforming. Long distance relationships used to primarily consist of handwritten letters with the occasional phone call in between. However, progression

Plot

Plot-Construction of Pride and Prejudice Summary In contrast to the simplicity of her style, Jane Austens plots are unexpectedly complex. She is not content to simply draw two or three characters in isolation. She prefers a family, with their many friends and acquaintances and she tries within her limited range to make things as difficult as possible. Outline1 SETTINGS OF HER NOVELS2 PLOT-CONSTRUCTION IN SENSE AND SENSIBILITY3 PLOT-CONSTRUCTION IN EMMA4 PLOT-CONSTRUCTION IN PRIDE AND PREJUDICE5 JANE AUSTENS COMEDY OF MANNERS IN PRIDE AND PREJUDICE6 THE UNITY OF TONE SETTINGS OF HER NOVELS Jane Austens field of study is man. She is, therefore, more preoccupied with human nature than nature in the nineteenth century usage of the word. The background and the scenery of the provincial town is rich in its beauty and grandeur. But there is no attempt to look into the spirit of this country. Thus although, she has some sense of locality yet she does not paint an English community like the other writers of her time. She rather avoids those very elements of the population in which the local flavour, the breath of the soil is most pronounced. She is further incapable of evoking a scene or a landscape and cannot conjure up the spirit of Bath as Emile Bronte could conjure up the spirit of the Moorlands or Hardy that of Wessex. All this, one may say, would be fatal to her dramatic quality of construction. In all her novels, we see only a limited range of human society. Most of her characters are the kind of people she knew intimately, the landed gentry, the upper class, the lower edge of the nobility, the lower clergy, the officer corps of the military. Her novels exclude the lower classes-both the industrial masses of the big cities and the agricultural labourers in the countryside. Three or four families in the country village is the very thing to work on. She does not show any of the great agonies or darker side of human experience. There is no hunger, poverty, misery or terrible vices and very little of the spiritual sphere of experience. Nor do we see any political dimension or even discussions regarding major political happenings in any of her novels. Nature too, is rarely described and her characters are usually presented indoors with an occasional expedition or picnic thrown in. According to Andrew H. Wright, the novels of Jane Austen can be considered on three levels of meaning: first, the purely local-illustrative of country life among the upper middle-classes at the end of eighteenth century in Southern England. Second, they can be taken as broad allegories in which Sense and Sensibility, Pride and Prejudice and a number of other virtues and defects are set forth in narrative form and commented on in this way. Third is the ironic level whereby the incidents, situations and characters in a novel imply something more than what they seem. PLOT-CONSTRUCTION IN SENSE AND SENSIBILITY It is one of Austens simplest novels. The story deals with two sisters Elinor -the heroine represents a woman of sense, while Marianne, her foolish foil represents a woman of sensibility. The first volume of the book has a symmetrical pattern and a clear parallel is drawn between the two romances-Edward Ferrars and Elinor, John Willoughby and Marianne. True to Elinors cool, sensible nature the relationship between Edward Farrars is conducted on the level of the mind, with both displaying hardly an emotion. The theme of sense is thus exemplified through their relationship. On the other hand Willoughby who enters Mariannes life as a true romantic hero having carried her home when she sprained her ankle, exemplifies the theme of sensibility in his relationship with Marianne. While the moral seems to illustrate the superiority of sense over sensibility there is an ironic twist in the plot whereby Elinor and Marianne virtually interchange their positions PLOT-CONSTRUCTION IN EMMA The plot of Emma can be said to have an inward and an outward movement. The inward deal with Emmas self-deception- with what she thinks is happening while the outward deals with what actually is happening and this brings to light her mistakes. It is through a series of humiliations and self reproach that Emma finally awakens to self-knowledge. The readers enjoyment stems from an awareness that Emma is wrong. From chapter 1 to 15, Emma thinks that Mr. Elton is in love with Harriet only to discover to her horror that Elton loves her. From chapter 18 to 30, Emma thinks herself to be in love with Frank and Jane Fairfax to be associated with Mr. Dixon. From chapter 31 to 46, Emma is convinced that Harriet and Frank Churchill are interested in one another. Towards the end of the novel, from chapter 46, Emmas theories about Frank and Harriet are about Jane Faifax and Dixon are destroyed and she has to face the possibility of Mr. Knightley being in love with Harriet. It is only after Knightleys proposals in the shrubbery that what is happening and what Emma thinks is happening converge and Emmas progress from self-delusion to knowledge is complete. The Boat by Alistair Macleod EssayThe first minor eprisode is the Jane-Bingley relationship. It can be treated as an independent event, but Jane Austen has woven it well with the main theme. Jane and Elizabeth are sisters who share each others secrets, hopes and fears and it is the simplest connection. But on the strength of Darcys regard, Bingley has the firmest reliance, and of his judgment the highest opinion, and so when Darcy suspected that Jane did not love Bingley as fervently as Bingley loved her, and found that her family had all vulgar manners and shallow tastes, he readily engaged in the office of pointing out to him the certain evils of such a choice. This was one of the very important reasons of Elizabeths strong prejudice, and thus it is connected with the main theme. The Wickham-Lydia eprisode and the Collins-Charolette relationship is equally well connected with it. While Elizabeth has developed a prejudice against Darcy, she is strongly attracted towards Wickham and it is very long before she knows what his real character is. One of the two strong charges she levels against Darcy is the ruining of Wickhams prospects. Darcy reveals the truth to her later, but because of her silence on this point, she cannot stop her sisters elopement and the slander on her family. It is this catastrophe, however, that brings Darcy closest to her because it is his love for her that he finds out the fugitives and makes a successful effort to bring about a marriage between Lydia and Wickham, neglecting the thought of the loss to him. Mr. Collins proposes to her, and later marries her best friend Charolette. All the threads are thus connected. Wickham and Charolette also serve as a comment on Elizabeth and Darcy. The Darcy-Elizabeth couple is flanked on one side by the unexceptionable Bingley and Jane, it is flanked on the other by Charolette and Wickham. The last two have the cleverness of the two main characters, but they are time-servers. The structure is therefore, most cleverly unifying. The precision, simplicity and symmetry of Pride and Prejudice evoke instinctive appreciation. So well it is constructed that the action proceeds logically from exposition, complication and climax to the denouncement and finally the resolution. The sub-plots are also thematically unified. The theme of love and marriage is exemplified through the plot and the sub-plots. Jane Austen uses the dramatic narrative mode and irony so effectively to build her complex plot that it would not be amiss to say that she is the most perfect dramatist who never wrote a play. Furthermore, all Jane Austen plots are characterized by a unity of tone and are compact and well- knit. There are no loose ands anywhere, no event conceived outside the actual plot and nothing usually hampers the progress of the story. JANE AUSTENS COMEDY OF MANNERS IN PRIDE AND PREJUDICE The wisest and the best of men-nay, the wisest and best of their actions may he rendered ridiculous by a person whose first object in life is a joke. Certainly, he replied Elizabeth-there are such people, but I hope I am not one of them. I hope I never ridicule that is wiser or good. Follies and nonsense, whims and inconsistencies do divert me, I own, and I laugh at them whenever I can. This brief dialogue between Darcy and Elizabeth throws distinct light upon Jane Austens purpose and programme in her novels. For once it be supposed that Miss Bennets point of view is but a projection of her creators. Her intention in these novels is to present a comedy of manners to present the follies and vices of men and to expose them to general ridicule by employing the devices of comedy, parody, burlesque, irony, wit, satire, each one of them as is suitable for the occasion and need. THE UNITY OF TONE Hence, her plots are characterized by a singular unity of tone and she often achieves it by focusing our attention at it from more than one angle. In Pride and Prejudice alone the unity of plot has been achieved from as many as three angles. We can view the novel first, as Elizabeth Bennet sees everything; secondly, by assigning to Elizabeth and Darcy a prominent place into the novel and by centering the higher and nobler comedy around these two figures; and thirdly by making the whole story a study in Pride pride of place and responsibility in some, pride in the form of social snobbery in others and also either a perverted pride or the lack of pride in the rest. However, the unity is therefore very essential in imparting coherence and shape to her design. Thus, the structure of Jane Austens novel is perfect and is ideally suited for the material she wanted to embody and the outlook she wished to present.

Researching Consumer Behaviour

Introduction â€Å"Consumer behaviour is the way that consumers act or behave when looking for, buying, and using products† (Dougherty, 2007). It focuses on how consumers choose and dispose services and products. The decision making process is complex and involves many psychological processes.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Researching Consumer Behaviour specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Consumers must take time to recognize their needs, find possible, effective, economical, and convenient ways to solve the problems, before arriving at a buying decision (Mort, 1997). Despite the complexity of the decision-making process, consumers are faced with product decisions daily. In fact, product decision has become so integral to consumers and producers that billions are spent daily in promotion and research to influence the decision process. Currently, consumer behaviour acts as the main guide for produce rs in product development. It is a costly process full of uncertainties, but so critical to ignore. Consumer behaviour affects all sectors of the economy. The demand for all products and services is, therefore, affected by changes in consumer behaviour. As such, consumer behaviour has become an effective tool for influencing the nature of products in the market and their selling prices (Bagozzi, Canli Priester, 2002). This research will attempt to find out what influences students to purchase cars. Having established the influence of consumer behaviour on decision making, the research will attempt to establish the specific role of consumer behaviour in influencing students to purchase cars. It will further establish gender and age disparities, if any, in car purchasing by students. The decision to buy a car may not rest on the students alone, but also their parents. Cases that require the support and consent of parents tend to be more complicated. This is because most parents tend to be reluctant when it comes to allowing students to own cars. The main concern for parents and students intending to own cars while still in college is affordability. However, reliability and safety are other concerns that may cause differences. This research will attempt to establish the factors affecting the choice of cars for those students who have decided to purchase cars. All car buyers consider efficiency, reliability, affordability, and â€Å"coolness† before committing to pay. Getting all the mentioned requirements in a car could be hard (Wilson, 1995).Advertising Looking for research paper on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More In fact, it is only possible to get a car fitting in all the above categories in the high-end market. Most students do not fall in this market segment. Therefore, this research will attempt to determine the overriding factor, which most students will give priority in making a purchasing decision. Gender and age segmentation will be used in this research. Age segmentation will be considered for various reasons. â€Å"The basic logic is that people of the same age are going through similar life experiences and therefore share many common needs, experiences, symbols, and memories, which, in turn, may lead to similar consumption patterns† (Hoyer MacInnis, 2010). Most importantly, the research will consider consumption patterns for students from three countries United Kingdom, Spain, and Greece. Since age groups tend to have a similar consumption pattern, using age as segmentation will provide a solid foundation for comparison and analysis. The research will also consider the possible influence of gender on buying decisions. This is because â€Å"males and females can differ in traits, attitude, and activities that can affect consumer behaviour† (Hoyer MacInnis, 2010). The research hypothesis will be formulated from set objectives and will be carefully examined without any biasness. It is evident that the number of students purchasing cars has grown tremendously over the last few years. The trend is wide spread, as it has been observed not only in the United Kingdom, but also in Spain and Greece. As such, marketers, car manufacturers, and institutions offering higher education, are curious to know the main motivation behind the trend, which this research attempts to unravel. Research Objectives General Objectives The aim of this research is to identify and analyze the factors that influence students into purchasing a car and to investigate if there are any differences on students’ decision-making in the United Kingdom, Spain, and Greece. Specific Objectives This research was based on seven specific objectives.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Researching Consumer Behaviour specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More To examine the effec ts of socioeconomic status on decision making. To examine how cultural and cultural orientation affects consumer behaviour. To establish what influences priorities among different age groups, races, and gender. To determine the contribution of other factors in influencing decision making. To determine the applicability and relevance of Maslow’s pyramid of needs among students interested in purchasing cars. To establish the relationship between self esteem and owning a car among students. Determine if there has been a significant change in the number of students purchasing cars as compared to five years ago. Hypotheses Many students purchase cars for status and personality identity purposes Extensive marketing has influenced students to buy cars Culture influence students buying decision The society has started treating it as normal for a student to purchase a car A majority of male students are likely to buy cars unlike females because they believe it enhances their chances of dating the best women. Final year students are the majority car buyers The government and the media have influenced students to purchase cars The changes in the education system are some of the factors influencing car buying among students. That cheaper and second hand vehicles form the bulk of vehicles bought by students. Country selection There have been many researches on consumer behaviour and decision making. Corporations and multinational organizations have spent and continue to invest billions of dollars annually in research aimed at identifying the main driving forces in consumer decision making. Since consumers are the backbone of any organization, this trend is unlikely to stop. The business environment has continued to be dynamic and extremely competitive, and knowing what consumers want and the possible factors that could influence their consumption can make a difference between success and failure (Decker Learning, 2001). However, there are little if any research works that have explored cross border or international consumer decision making. Therefore, this research aims at finding out the possible regional differences that may influence consumer decision making, especially among students in buying cars. To get a more diversified result, the research will focus on students purchasing trend in three countries, United Kingdom, Spain, and Greece. Literature Review This section reviews the works done by other scholars and researchers in the area of students’ buying behaviour. It also identifies research gaps for the study. To analyze effectively the existing data and to establish the existing research gap, if any, the section is divided into sub-sections. Since the research aims to establish the purchasing trend of students in relation to gender, socioeconomic status, culture, and priorities, the literature review will be conducted under these four sub-headings. The fact that students have become the latest target market for car manufact urers such as Toyota, Nissan, Isuzu, Porsche, Hyundai, Chevrolet, and Isuzu cannot be denied. There are many probable forces behind the trend, ranging from desire for high social status to affordability. All consumption decisions are complex in one way or the other. The forces that affect households in making purchasing decisions also affect students. Using traditional purchasing decision process makes it hard to find out the factors that drive students to purchase cars (Schiffman Kanuk, 1997). Therefore, it is appropriate to explore all factors affecting students, by virtue of being students first, before considering them as consumers.Advertising Looking for research paper on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Gender role in decision making Whether it is purchasing property, consumables, or make-up, gender plays a core role in influencing the decision making process. This research will analyse the work of Solomon, Consumer Behaviour: Buying, Having, and Being, Englewood Cliffs (1996), Jennings Wattam, Decision making: an integrated approach (1964), and Kirchler, Conflict and decision-making in close relationships: love, money, and daily routines (2001). â€Å"There are different types of purchase, impulse buying, habitual purchases, and genuine purchasing decisions which have been arrived at by one person autonomously or by selected people together† (Kirchler, 2001). Kirchler further states that whichever the type of purchase; gender plays a significant role (74). Coley, conducted a research aimed at comparing the cognitive and affective differences between men and women in the impulse buying process and found â€Å"a significant difference† (2003). Using a sample size of 2 77 students, Coley found out that many processes associated with buying decisions varry in intensity between the two sexes (283). Such factors include positive buying emotion, buyers ability to manage personal mood, and irresistable urge to purchase a product. How socioeconomic status affects decision-making According to the American psychological association, socioeconomic status (SES) â€Å"is the social standing of an individual or group in terms of their income, education, and occupation.† Numerous researches have proven that SES affects decision making. Among the reputable and highly recognised research works include: Bruin, W.B., Parker, A.M., Fischhoff, B. (2007). Individual differences in adult decision-making competence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, vol. 92, no. 5, pp. 938-956. DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.92.5.938. Finucane, M.L., Mertz, C.K., Slovic, P. Schmidt, E.S. (2005). Task complexity and older adults’ decision-making competence. Psycholo gy and Aging, vol.20 no. 1, pp. 71-84. DOI: 10.1037/0882-7974.20.1.71. Klein, M.F. (1991) The Politics of curriculum decision-making: issues in centralizing the curriculum, Albany: State University of New York Press. According to Finucane, Mertz, Slovic Schmidt (2005), people in the lower SES are prone to making poor decisions. Finucane et al. claims the people in lower SES experience so many problems because they are incapable of getting many things they desire including basic needs (2005). As such, when confronted with decisions to make, their poor background may blurr their vision or infuence their choices negatively. Educated people are more informed and are, therefore, deemed capable of making informed decisions (Klein, 1991). Cognitive functions are also known to decline with age (Finucane et al. , 2005). As such, older individuals are prone to making poor decisions. Since this research focusses on students, the possibility of buying decisions being affected or influence by age is minimal. Effects of culture on decision making Kalman describes culture as, â€Å"The way we live. It is the clothes we wear and the foods we eat. Culture is how we have fun† (2010). Culture encompasses all aspects of human lives, food, language, beliefs, traditions, and values. According to (Donnel, 2007), â€Å"People with different cultural backgrounds have different expectations, norms and values, which in turn have the potential to influence their judgements and decisions as well as their subsequent behaviour.† He further highlights the cultural differences and their possible effects on decision making by giving two examples. European Americans, for example, are generally influenced by the positive consequences of a decision, whereas Asians appear to be more influenced by the negative consequences that may occur due to a decision or line of action. Asians are therefore more â€Å"prevention† focused, manifesting a greater tendency to compromise, seek moderation or to postpone decisions if it is possible. (Donnel, 2007) Since this research is to be carried in three countries, United Kingdom, Spain, and Greece, there is a high possibility that cultural diversity could affect the outcome of the research. The changes in the education system have influenced car buying among students (H1) The increased demand for education has led to the emergence of numerous learning institutions (Smart, 2011). Unlike centuries ago when educational institutions were solely owned and run by governments, changes in the education sector, coupled with increased demand for education, has necessitated private investments in the education sector. The emergence of private institutions has seen increased competition for students’ enrolment. The increased competition has â€Å"seen some centres amalgamate with other units† to increase operations and dominance in the industry (Smart, 2011). The institutions have also introduced many luxurious fac ilities such as swimming pools and student parking to position themselves as preferred choices for students. Such moves could be considered as potential influence for students who own or are considering buying cars. Final year students are the majority car buyers (H2) Final year college students are liable for various financial facilities such as credit cards, and loans. Most of them are also involved in money generating activities such as part-time jobs (Eyring, 2010). The final year students are, in most cases, left with only a few units to complete college education. Therefore, most of them choose to spend wisely the extra time by taking up jobs. Since job schedule can clash with college programme, the students may find it inconveniencing using public means to juggle between job and school. This is because public transport can be inflexible. Worst still, some colleges are located far away from access roads, which makes the two engagements, college and job, hard to sustain. In suc h cases, the students may be forced to buy a car to keep the job while continuing with education. Most employers need relevant experience and quitting a job is something that most college students detest (Berger, 2012). According to the United Kingdom’s department of higher education 2011, â€Å"These days nearly all students have some sort of a part-time job. It might be anything from working a few evenings in a supermarket or behind a bar to dog walking or babysitting. â€Å"The desire to keep a job and continue with college is, therefore, a considerable drive to students to purchase a car other than SES. Extensive marketing has influenced students to buy cars (H3) The competition in the motor industry has reached fever pitch. Dominant car manufacturers such as Toyota, GM and Hyundai, are embroiled in all types of marketing campaigns aimed at increasing sales and market share. The list of leading motor manufacturers by volume of sales by 2011 is provided in appendix 1. As the competition in the motor industry intensifies, it is not only the quality of cars that improves, but also promotion campaigns and accessories installed in the cars. Motor manufacturers have exploited different promotional methods, online advertisements through social sites such as FaceBook and Twitter and company websites, road shows, brochures, auto magazines, and video games. These advertisements are so visually loaded that they lure not only students, but other potential customers. Sample of auto-magazine covers that have ignited demand are attached in appendix 2. The use of celebrity endorsement has had a fair share of influence among students who idolize them. The potentiality of student market cannot be ignored. Car manufacturers having realised this, have resorted to all ways to appeal to students’ perception and beliefs to influence them to buy cars. Advertisement that features â€Å"cool for you and your colleagues† are no surprise anymore. It is not only the visual aspects of the advertisements that have been bent to suit the student population, but also the language used. The use of slag in advertising low-end market cars is a common phenomenon. Many students purchase cars for status and personality identity purposes (H4) In attempts to embrace equally in the educational institutions, the institutions have adopted guidelines and policies that ensure no student is treated in any special way. Many institutions have attempted to improve the learning environment as well as facilities for aiding the learning process to ensure maximum comfort of learners (Collins, 2011). Despite the facilities provided in the institutions, many students still opt to buy cars and still go as a far as bringing them to school. It is believed that this is a move to make them stand out from the crowd. This is a probable explanation especially to those students who live in the institutional facilities, but still choose to come with their cars. Since many thin gs in the institution food, rooms, and facilities such as libraries and laboratories are shared indiscriminately, owning a personal car sets one special or in a class of their own. Methodology The three countries under study have a large number of students’ population in High schools, tertiary colleges, and universities. As such, selecting a representative sample is a complicated task. However, the consumption trends show concentrated purchase of cars in colleges and universities. As such, emphasis will be put on these specific groups. Considering the existence of only a few researches carried out to establish the factors that influence students to buy cars, a qualitative approach will be adopted since it is the best option for such a research. The cost and time involved in carrying out a primary research is extremely high. As such, the research will rely on other concluded works to provided additional information for secondary data. According to (Jackson, 2012), secondary da ta are data already collected by some other researchers for different purposes. These data are essential as they form the foundation for building new research and correcting earlier inaccuracies. No work of research can collect data for all the variables needed to complete the research without using already existing data. Such a research would be too expensive and would take a very long time. However, for secondary data to be of help, they must be readily available, accurate, sufficient, and relevant (Stewart, 1984). The data collected from secondary sources, in this case, will supply both qualitative and quantitative data. The data collected from secondary sources will be used for analysis and interpretation of primary data. As such, no secondary source will be used as a basis for further research. Instead, they will provide crucial information to bridge research gaps. Most data used in the research will be collected from primary sources. â€Å"Primary data refers to information c ollected for the first time specifically for a research study† (Kurtz, 2012). Data collected from primary sources is unique and suits the purpose for which it is collected. There are many methods of primary data collection. The main methods include critical incidents analysis, interviews, diaries, observation, case studies, portfolios, focus group interviews, and questionnaires (Saunders, Lewis Thornhill, 2003). The selection of appropriate data collection method requires the consideration of many factors such as cost, efficiency, and time available. In this case, focus groups, questionnaires, observation, and interviews will be used. The choice of questionnaires is prompted by its numerous advantages. Questionnaires are cheap to administer, have the ability to cover a wide geographical area, can be emailed hence no need for administrators, and ensures respondents anonymity. Focus groups, on the other hand, will be used to collect qualitative data. â€Å"A focus group could be defined as a group of interacting individuals having some common interest or characteristics, brought together by a moderator, who uses the group and its interaction as a way to gain information about a specific or focused issue† (Marczak Sewell, 2011). Focus groups will be used in collecting primary research because they provide the opportunity for recording not only individuals reactions, but also their attitude in relation to car ownership by students. Additionally, a focus group allows for interratction and broader discussion of the topic at hand (Barbour, 2007). For the opurposes of this study, three focus groups will be formed consisting of 10 individuals, five from each gender. The age of focus group members will be 18-25 years. There will be one focus group in each country, United Kingdom, Spain, and Greece. They focus groups will meet for approxiamtely one and a half hours to avoid lose of interest and fatique. This will also help reduce the chances of deviation. Since one of the objectives of this research is to establish the validity of the cliam that the majority of students who buy or consider buying cars are final year students, members of the focus group will not be randomly chosen, but will be selected from the various years of study, first, second, third, and final year students. Gender is also one of the varriables in the research and as such, the composition of the focus gropups will take care of gender balance. In brief, each focus group will comprise of males and females in their first to final year study in the selected institutions. Since culture and cultural orientation influences decision making, the focus groups will be enriched by selecting people of various races and cultures, and the environment in the focus groups regulated to favour divergent opinions and perceptions. The efficiency and accuracy of data received from the focus groups will be reinforced further by covering a few questions, five to seven questions. Since the focus group participants will not be paid, provision of a comfortable environment is essential. Comfortable chairs and quality refreshments will also be provided to enhance corporation and active participation. Further, the focus group meetings will be held in the respective institutions where the participants take their classes or in a close proximity to the institutions to curb inconveniencies arising from long travelling. Probing questions have been developed to help the focus groups in the discussion process. A copy of the questions is provided in appendix 3. The inefficiencies of focus groups as a primary source of data cannot be ignored (Jenkins Harrison, 1990). Focus groups give a researcher no control over data received, some of which can be quite irrelevant. The data from focus groups is often jumbled, which makes the analysis process quite complicated. Lastly, establishing the accuracy of data received from focus groups is an insurmountable task. These inefficiencies can hinder accurate results and, therefore, many checks have been put in place. For, instance, the data collected from focus groups will be compared with those collected from interviews and observations before any conclusion is arrived at. Interviews will also form part of primary data collection methods. â€Å"An interview is a conversation, usually between two people. But it is a conversation where one person A the interviewer, is seeking responses for a particular purpose from the other person: the interviewee† (Gillham, 2003). The choice of interviews as a source of primary data has been prompted by the fact that it gives the interviewer an opportunity to clarify questions and concepts that the interviewee might not be familiar with, something impossible with questionnaires. Its flexibility is also an added advantage, since it allows the interviewees to respond in any way they deem appropriate provided the response can be understood and captured. When focus groups fail to highlight individuals’ attitude, perceptions, and beliefs, interviews provide the interviewer with the opportunity to capture these important variable, which significant influence purchase decision. Car sellers and manufacturers will be interviewed to establish the purchasing trends of students. If possible, data for sales to students for a period of the past five years will be collected for analysis. Students will also be interviewed to find out if they own cars, or are considering owning one. Considering the low confidentiality of the research topic, both structured and unstructured interviews will be used. Structured interviews will be used because they save time and present same questions to interviewees leading to consistent and relevant data output. Unstructured interviews, on the other hand, will be adopted due to their flexibility, their ability to provide room for the interviewees to express their emotions, attitude, and perceptions, which are core to this research. The structured interview questions are attached in appendix 4. Common errors associated with interviewing such as poor responses resulting from poorly framed questions, probing errors, which may occur due to provision of insufficient time to the interviewee for answering interview questions, and lack of motivation and concentration of the interviewees, have been put on check to eliminate any possible errors in the findings or to reduce error margin significantly. Due to cost reduction efforts, most interviews will be conducted through telephone calls. After identifying the correspondents, scheduled telephone interviews will be conducted at the convenience of the interviewees. Conducting telephone interviews comes with a host of challenges (Marcus, 2011). Since it involves communicating to people we do not see face to face, it is impossible to tell how committed, attentive, and willing they are to be interviewed. This is because it lacks facial clues, which are crucial in determinin g the level of commitment of an interviewee. The curiosity involved when dealing with telephone interviews further complicates its application. Many people find it hard responding to questions, especially when private information is involved, from strangers. Since the research will require the financial status of the students who have purchased cars, it will be important to emphasize the confidentiality of the information provided to boost the confidence of the interviewees. As such, the introduction to interviewees will be extensive and professional. The purpose of the research will also be stated to eliminate suspicions, which could lead to lack of cooperation or giving of false information. All interviews will be recorded for quality and data analysis purposes. The last primary data collection method to be used in the study is observation. â€Å"Observational data collection methods are techniques for gathering qualitative data by watching the behaviour of individuals without di rect questioning† (Hartog Staveren, 2006). It entails â€Å"the systematic noting and recording of events, behaviours, and artefacts (objects) in the social setting chosen for study† (Page, 2000). Page further claims, â€Å"Observation is a fundamental and highly important method in all qualitative inquiry† (2000). The observation process will be structured to enable easy coding and analysis. As such, all cars entering the selected institutions will be recorded. Since all vehicles entering institutions are not only for students, the ones that belong to students will be selected from student parking. Fine details such as vehicle models and the sex of the drivers will be noted. This is because the research aims to establish gender disparity in car ownership among students. For easy analysis, the observation process will be recorded by the use of a video recorder. Note taking will also run concurrently to ensure that no fine details are missed out. Because observat ion will not provided some important information such as the age of the students with cars, which is a critical requirement for this research, approximation will be used. However, the most important information to be collected form observation will be the number of cars owned by students and their models. In this way, observation will give a direct and concrete evidence of car ownership by students and will help to validate the other data gathered through interviews and focus groups. In brief, the data to be collected through observation will be categorized into: The car models owned by students The sexes of the car owners Year of study of the students owning cars The use of multiple data collection methods, interviews, focus groups, and observation, was meant to eliminate the occurrence of â€Å"inappropriate uncertainty† (Sheá ¸ ³edi, 2005). The idea is also supported by Wholey, Hatry Newcomer (2010) who cliam it is appropriate to â€Å"†¦use multiple data collect ion strategies to verify or refute findings †¦Here the solution is to analyze all available data using multiple techniques and addressing rival hypotheses† (179). After the data collection exercise, the data is then expected to be refined and thoroughly analyzed for any deviant or misleading information. Any information that will show a significant deviation from the others will be ignored. The selected data will then be analyzed using packages such as computer assisted qualitative data analysis software (CAQDAS). The variables expected to be used will include number of cars owned by students in the three selected Universities in the United Kingdom (Oxford), Spain (Universitat de Barcelona), and Greece (Aristotle University of Thessaloniki), the ratio of males to females owning cars, and the specific car models. Results and Discussion Introduction This chapter presents the results from the three primary sources of data collection that were employed in the research. It fur ther discusses findings from the in-depth interviews conducted; structured observations made, and focus group reactions. Focus Groups The three focus groups formed to collect relevant data for analysis gave different but close results. The main objective of the focus groups is to find out if the participants own cars or are considering buying one. The probing questions designed to guide the focus groups were responded to in varied ways. For instance, when asked, â€Å"Do you own a personal car?† There were two definite answers, yes or no. Still, others who did not own cars indicated that they were considering it. Other interesting findings emerged from the responses. Male students who owned cars, did not only stop at accepted the ownership, but also went ahead to mention the car models. â€Å"Yes, a 2012 Toyota Camry Hybrid.† â€Å"Yes, a Hyundai Sonata.† â€Å"Yes, a refined, comfortable, and extremely quiet Toyota Highlander.† It was even more interesti ng as those students who owned sports cars and other expensive brands showered their cars with praises and even at times quoted their purchase prices. Others went ahead to give fine performance details of their cars. The groups almost turned into motor shows, but this did not affect the quality of data recorded, instead, it enriched the data. Some of the recorded reactions are discussed below. One group member, an evidently proud owner of a Ford Mustang sports car said, â€Å"It is not only legendary, but also has low fuel consumption and a persuasive V8 power. It combines versatility and utility making it the best choice for any student. † Another member who owned â€Å"The Infiniti G† praised it in equal measure, if not in a higher degree. â€Å" The car has the best interior design in the world that provides unrivalled comfort. It also has a blistering acceleration.† One oxford student owning a 2012 Mazda MX-5 Miata described it as â€Å"an epitome of comfor t that sets the standard for practicality and fuel economy.† There were also females who owned cars. However, it seemed most of them were not informed of their cars specifications or were simply not interested in talking about them. This is because most females who had cars hardly mentioned their models. Even after asking the cars’ models and performance specifications, only 40% of the females could give detailed information. All males liked the idea of owning a car. The males who did not own cars were considering buying or would be glad to own a car, but face financial challenges. On the other hand, only 60% of females liked the idea of owning a car. They claimed owning a car in college â€Å"may intimidate potential dates.† They further claimed men â€Å"are scared of women they consider dominant, classy, and independent,† attributes associated with owning a personal car in college. A considerable 10% said they would rather support their boyfriends to bu y a car than own it themselves. It is, however, interesting that even the females who were not for owning cars in college, were not against fellow females owning them. The UK female students who were in the Oxford focus group, seemed to have a different opinion from their Greece and Spain counterparts. They strongly believed owning a car is essential for all students. The ones, who did not own one yet, strongly believed they would be happier and more comfortable if they owned one. Concerning the claim that students buy cars for prestige and social status, a considerable number agreed. Male students in Spain and Greece indicated that owning a car attracts considerable respect from the students’ fraternity and even college tutors. A whopping 60% said car ownership attracted females and increases one’s chances of dating high-class females. One male claimed, â€Å"Females want successful males. Owning a car is a symbol of success.† They also claimed owning a car inc reased morale and self-confidence. Students in the United Kingdom share this position. However, they tend to view car ownership in a completely different perspective. They consider it as a means of improving educational horizon like attending off-site classes and going for internships. Female participants overwhelmingly agreed that they would consider men who owned cars more successful than the ones who did not, even if; their guardians buy the cars. One claimed, â€Å"It is hectic dating a guy who has no car because going for parties is hard without a car.† Males, on the other side, felt immense pressure to measure up to the demands and expectations of their female counterparts, which forces them to buy cars if they are not to be treated as second in social ranking. Regarding the influence of government and educational institution’s on student’s car buying decisions, most students felt the two factors did not make any significant contribution. In Spain, for ins tance, the government has provided incentives for students who want to purchase cars (Vaughan, 2012). Many people believe this move has elicited interest among students to buy cars, pushing even those who would otherwise not be interested in purchasing cars to consider doing so. Educational institutions have also contributed in influencing car buying among students. According to one focus group member, â€Å"institutions have continued to create conducive environment for car ownership that have enticed students to buy cars. Security for students’ cars while in college premises has been heightened. Parking spaces are not only provided, but are also well maintained. Despite these incentives, many students feel the government and the education institutions are simply following the wishes of the students, as consumers. In terms of priorities, still the focus groups had varied concerns. Despite inability to fulfil sufficiently other basic needs, some students chose to buy cars. T he consumption of cars by students is in contravention of the theory of the hierarchy of needs developed by Abraham Maslow. According to the theory, a person can only seek higher needs after satisfying lower needs (Goble, 2004). In this case, some students who have bought cars accept that they still face every day challenges such as affording descent meals. Purchasing a car is for esteem needs as stated, but it leaves a lot to desire as to why students would buy a car when they still have a lot to achieve in terms of basic needs, safety needs, and social needs. Interviews Three car dealers were interviewed to establish the purchasing trends of students. Since students purchase various types of cars Isuzu, Mitsubishi, Toyota, Mercedes, Nissan and many more, choosing a suitable dealer was a complicated task. To get a more representative data, dealers who stock various car models were selected over those that stock specific brands. The selected dealers are Wheatley Car Centre in Wheatl ey Oxford, Mastertrac S.A, Barcelona, and Spanos in Athens. From the interview with the managing directors of Wheatley Car Centre, it was apparent that the company treasured students as a potential market for new and used cars. This is because the company had a variety of affordable cars and incentives such as discounts for every sale and recommendations. Appendix 5 provides the list of cars in the student’s section of the store at the time of visit. According to the manager, students prefer affordable cars with low fuel consumption, which prompted them to open a section with such cars. The manager also confirmed that their student customers are both female and males. However, he said there is a disparity in sales in terms of gender. Out of every nine customers, only one is female. The interview with Mastertrac’s sales representatives revealed closely related findings. The numbers of students who purchase cars have been growing steadily. Despite the growth, only a few female students purchase cars. Despite massive advertisements and incentives, the response from the female students has been low. The interview also revealed that the few females who went to purchase cars seemed to have little or no information on the type of cars they wanted. They preferred using price to guide them in making a buying decision. One sales man said, â€Å"Ladies simply want what they can afford, regardless of how it performs.† Another one said, â€Å"Ladies go for how a car looks and consider its affordability while completely ignoring its performance.† Unless the females come with someone to advice them and help them choose a car, they are likely to buy a completely different car from what they had in plan, provided the sales representative does a little persuasion. The Spanos’s interview also gave many similar revelations. The number of students purchasing cars has increased. However, the store did not have data showing gender difference in sal es. They also indicated that the students were not limited to low cost cars only, as some bough expensive sports cars. Additionally, other students requested pimping and customization of their cars. The three interviews gave very conclusive findings. Most importantly, the information received did not greatly deviate from the information from the focus groups. Observation The institutions under observation had parking lots for students. In fact, the students’ parking lots were more spacious than staff’s parking lot. This is a clear indication that the number of students owning cars is higher than the number of support and teaching staffs owning cars. Many vehicles owned by students, assuming all the cars parked at the students’ parking lot belonged to students, are quite affordable. In the UK and Greece, however, there were mixes of low-end and high-class cars owned by students. There was also an interesting observation made in Spain. Over 80% of males who owned cars drove into the institutions with their car windows down. This was perhaps meant to draw attention and could be used to deduce that they are proud of owning the cars. Those who owned expensive sports cars were the worst victims in this category. Over 90% of the females observed driving into the institutions, on the other hand, had their windows up. In fact, it was almost obvious that females drove any car that was approaching with windows down. It was also observed that the few females who owned cars, owned expensive ones. Most male students also had their cars pimped to suit their taste. Their cars had loud music systems, stickers, and mixed colours or in some cases abstract images. This is contrary to the belief that women like fancy things because most cars owned by female students were plain. Another important observation made in the sales stores was that students frequently came to window shop for cars. Male students were the majority of window shoppers. Those who had purch ased cars came to check on new arrivals, even if they didn’t intend to make new a purchase. Females, on the other hand, visited the stores only when they intended to buy or escorted friends to buy cars. Analysis of Findings Most findings from the focus groups, interviews, and observations were in support of the hypotheses of the research. Some of the findings, however, were in contradiction of the hypotheses. H1 predicted that students buy cars because of favourable and luring environment created by educational institutions such as parking lots and security. Students in the focus groups thought contrarily. They said the created environment by the institutions was simply due to increased car ownership by students and the desire by the institutions to create sanity in parking. This was concurrent with interview finding, which indicated that other factors other than socioeconomic status, culture, and priorities played on 5% role in influencing students’ decision to buy ca rs. As expected, the majority of students buying cars are final year students. Members of focus groups who did not own cars said they would only consider buying when they are in their final year of study. Even the students who did not approve owning cars while still staying said it was acceptable for final years to own one.H3 predicted that extensive marketing plays a significant role in influencing students to buy cars. Focus group members from all the three countries researched noted that advertisement played a role in convincing them that they needed cars. In fact, even members who had not purchased cars said they are under constant from the advertisements, some of which are â€Å"pinned in toilets and bathrooms.† The fact that most students buy cars to gain recognition and social standing was overwhelmingly confirmed. Interview results showed that 60% of students felt they were treated better than others because they owned cars. However, it was the results from the focus groups that were more interesting. Male students who owned cars said it places them in â€Å"a better position to date the best women† in campus. While the female students said they were unlikely to be influenced to date a male for owning a car, they admitted that they viewed the males who had cars as serious in life and of high social standing. Observations also confirmed this hypothesis overwhelmingly. It was observed in Spain that over 80% of males who owned cars drove into the institutions with their car windows down. However, only 10% of females had their windows down. This is an indication that the students who owned the cars felt special and were proud of owning the cars. Further, it was observed in the United Kingdom that students who owned cars pimped them and often came in campus playing loud music. This is perhaps another confirmation that the car owners seek attention from other students. Cultural and government influence on car buying was insignificant. Many stud ents in focus groups were not aware of any government incentives aimed at stimulating students demand for cars. The fact that 40% of those in focus groups in Spain said they are unaware of government incentives despites vigorous campaigns confirmed the little influence the policies have on students buying behaviour. The fact that the research was carried out in three countries with diverse cultures and still had consistent results is a clear indication that culture played an insignificant role too. Conclusion The findings from this research have shown that the number of students buying cars has increased, and that the trend is likely to continue. According to the research, the factors influencing students to buy cars range from desire for high social status, recognition, extensive marketing by motor manufacturers, and societal expectations, to improving educational horizon like attending off-site classes and going for internships. Whichever the reason for buying a car, it is time fo r motor vehicle manufacturers to realise that the student fraternity has become a significant market for motor cars. To succeed in selling to students, the following methods have been identified as effective. Investing in extensive marketing using social media, brochures, websites, and posters pinned in learning institutions have been identified to have significant influence on students’ buying decision. The fact that social standing is a major driving force for students buying cars, the advertisements should be crafted to portray high social standing of owners. Finally, it is evident that people of 18-25 years are driven more by esteem needs and will do everything possible to satisfy these needs even when their basic, safety, and social needs are threatened. It explains why many students rush to buy cars when they can hardly afford decent meals. Appendices Appendix 1: Leading motor vehicle manufacturing companies by volume 2010 Total motor vehicle production Appendix 2: Sa mple auto-magazine covers Ebscomags cited in Vaughan, 2012, p.14 Appendix 3: Discussion Guide for the Three Focus Groups General guidelines Achieving the full participation of the focus group members is essential. As such, it is important to welcome the members and make them feel comfortable and treasured. After the introduction, it will be important to communicate to all group members the aims and objectives of the focus groups. To avoid the reluctance of members divulging confidential information for fear of being exposed, confidentiality of collected information will be affirmed. The interaction process will be recorded for analysis. The discussion is to be as free flowing as possible. Therefore, the set probe questions must not be followed in that sequence, but in any order. Appendix 4: Questionnaire Design Cover letter Dear sir/madam, I am a final year marketing student. As a course requirement, I am supposed to carry out a marketing research in any area of interest. As such , I have decided to research on â€Å"why students buy cars?† As a student, I have selected you to assist in the research process by filling in the questionnaire. Please answer the questions as honestly and precisely as you can. I would also like to assure you that any information provided here in will be handled confidentially, and will not be used for any other purpose not specified without your permission. After completing the questionnaire, please send it to me using the â€Å"reply† option in this email. I expect the completed questionnaire by 20/06/2012. Instructions Answer all the questions Tick where appropriate Questions Do you own a car? If yes, how did you acquire the car? If you bought it, what inspired you to do so? Do you feel treated better because you drive? As the car helped achieve the intended purpose? What is your monthly average income any? Does your income influence your purchasing significantly? Appendix 5: List of Cars at Wheatley Car Centre Models Car Brands Chevrolet Ford Honda Hyundai Kia Mazda Nissan Toyota Others Chevrolet Aveo Hatchback Ford Fiesta Hatchback Honda Civic Coupe Hyundai Accent Hatchback Kia Forte Sedan Mazda MAZDA2 Nissan Cube Toyota Corolla Mitsubishi Lancer Chevrolet Aveo Sedan Ford Fiesta Sedan Honda Civic Sedan Hyundai Accent Sedan Kia Rio Hatchback Mazda MAZDA3 Sedan Nissan Sentra Toyota Yaris Hatchback Fiat 500 Hatchback Chevrolet Sonic Honda Fit Hyundai Elantra Kia Rio Sedan Nissan Versa Hatchback Toyota Yaris Sedan Jeep Patriot Honda Civic Coupe Hyundai Elantra Touring Kia Forte Sedan Nissan Versa Sedan Toyota Corolla Scion iQ Honda Civic Sedan Hyundai Accent Hatchback Kia Rio Hatchback Toyota Yaris Hatchback Scion xD Honda Fit Hyundai Accent Sedan Kia Rio Sedan Toyota Yaris Sedan smart fortwo Hatchback Hyundai Elantra Kia Rio Wagon Suzuki SX4 Sedan Hyundai Elantra Touring Kia Soul Volkswagen Jetta References Bagozzi, P, Canli, Z P riester, R 2002, The social psychology of consumer behaviour, Open University Press, Buckingham, England. 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Vaughan, A 2012, ‘Government launches  £5,000 car grant scheme’, AutoShow, vol 67, no. 3, pp. 13-17. Wholey, S, Hatry, P Newcomer, E 2010, Han dbook of practical program evaluation, 3rd edn, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco. Wilson, Q 1995, The good car guide, BBC Books, London. This research paper on Researching Consumer Behaviour was written and submitted by user Alfonso Fletcher to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Top 7 Ways to Beat the Heat and Stay Cool During the Summer

Top 7 Ways to Beat the Heat and Stay Cool During the Summer The blazing heat of the summer is tough on our bodies. If you don’t have the luxury of staying indoors where your AC is blasting on high, then you know how hard it can be to stay cool during the summer months. Most of us need to work, so there is no escaping the brutal summer heat. But don’t let the heat stop you. There are ways you can beat the heat and stay cool without sacrificing your sanity. Here are the top 10 ways you can beat the heat and stay cool:7. Drink more waterThis may seem like a no brainer, but you’d be surprised at just how many people do not drink enough water during the day. To be safe, you should follow the 8 by 8 rule which states that you should drink eight 8-ounce glasses of fluid a day.6. Take precautions to avoid excessive sweatI live in New York City. So I know how bad it is to be standing on a hot subway platform while sweating like a mad man. It’s brutal. There are tricks you can use to counter excessive sweating. You can try p utting on deodorant the night before. Your sweat glands are more active in the morning which causes your deodorant to be less effective.5. Get a portable fanThe other day I bought a portable fan that sprays mist into your face while fanning you. What a time to be alive. Get yourself one of these babies and take them with you on those scorching hot days.4. Avoid eating hot foodsA few weeks ago, I went to a nice little Korean place and got the soup. Bad decision. Since it’s already hot outside, eating anything hot will only amplify the effects of the heat. You definitely do not want to go down that road.3. Exercise comfortablyMy personal recommendation is to get a gym membership and avoid exercising in the heat. But if that’s not something that is possible, then there are alternative exercises such as swimming and various other water sports that can definitely get the job done.2. Sleep on top of a wet sheet or clothSleeping in the heat is the absolute worst because it of ten prevents you from getting the proper rest that you need in order to function the next day. If you’re trying to save money on your electric bill, you can try sleeping on a wet sheet or cloth. You’ll be able to remain cool even in the sweltering heat.1. Know your body’s best cooling pointsFinally, if you’re trapped in the heat and aren’t able to find a cooler place, then you can apply an ice pack, or cold towel to your cooling points. This can include wrists, forehead, etc. By knowing your cooling points, you’ll be able to cool yourself off faster and more effectively.Source: [Lifehacker]

Why emails here to stay - Emphasis

Why emails here to stay Why emails here to stay People have been ringing the death knell for email on and off for a few years now. But should we be listening? The latest peal came from French IT company Atos, which declared that it would phase out internal emails by 2013. And for reasons well all recognise: too much time spent dealing with too many emails, of which too few are useful and too many are spam. CEO Thierry Breton said his staff would instead use good old face-to-face communication, as well as instant messaging (IM) and social media tools. The shadow of social media Rumours also circulated when Facebook launched its Social Inbox, which brings users emails, chat and texts together in one place. Both co-founder Mark Zuckerberg and chief operating officer Sheryl Sandberg questioned the future of email at least in its current format. Email I cant imagine life without it is probably going away, Sandberg announced at Nielsens Consumer 360 conference. If you want to know what people like us will do tomorrow, you look at what teenagers are doing today. Good to know that in time well not only be swapping email for SMS and social media, but also pledging eternal love to Justin Bieber. Last year did see a drop off in email users, by far the most dramatic of which (59 per cent, according to US internet research firm ComScore) was among 1217 year olds. However, the average 13-year-old has different communication needs to the average office worker. (The fall in use by 2535-year-olds was 18 per cent, and in 3544-year-olds only 8 per cent.) IM steps up The main pretender to emails throne is instant messenger. A quick Twitter poll revealed its appeal its informal, chatty, good for knowing whos at their desk and for getting a quick response. One woman contributed the excellent point that, as she is deaf, it is a handy equivalent to the telephone. However, IM is not without its drawbacks. It is distracting, not so good for detail and sometimes used when an email would be more appropriate. One tweeter summed it up with: Occasionally useful, often annoying. Especially when youre watching someone composing what should have been an email. Many people said they used IM alongside email: evidently it has its place, but its not an email replacement. Five reasons to love email With three billion users, email is clearly doing several things right. Here are five unique benefits: 1. Your account will be compatible with your recipients, no matter what programme you each use. 2. You decide when you reply, so you have more control over your time management a choice you dont get with instant messages and phone calls. 3. It encourages thought-out and structured messages by providing formatting tools and (almost) limitless space. 4. Unlike most instant messaging services (or phone calls), it still works if the recipient isnt there at the moment of sending. 5. It allows you to keep a record or reference by saving and filing useful information to your own system. This isnt to say that email cant yet be improved upon. There are already tools available to help sort through, and even explore and utilise the data within your inbox. Granted, some of these do merge information from social sites, and to an extent the line between the two is blurring. By the time those 1217-year-olds are taking meetings, email may have become a very different animal. But its definitely not dead yet: and its still evolving. And for advice on managing your inbox, check out our Top tips for smart email.

The changes in medieval italian society and the papacy Essay

The changes in medieval italian society and the papacy - Essay Example He spent most of his time working the land, and trying to grow enough food to survive another year. Social activities were important also, every citizen in a medieval town were expected to attend fairs in the town square (Life during the Middle Ages). Medieval weddings, also one of the important events, were a whole town activity. Women were largely confined to household tasks such as cooking, baking bread, sewing, weaving, and spinning. But some medieval women held other occupations such as blacksmiths, merchants, and apothecaries (Life during the Middle Ages). Medieval diets lacked vitamins A, C and D and were not high in calories. The only positive part of these diets, were that they were somewhat "heart-smart;" low in fat and high in fiber. But the medieval world was usually a very hungry one. (Life during the Middle Ages). The Catholic Church was the main source of education. Every cathedral and monastery established a school to provide free education to every boy who had the intelligence and the perseverance to follow a demanding course of study. Medieval students often sat together on the floor, scrawling notes from lessons using a bone or ivory stylus on wooden tablets coated with green or black wax (Life during the Middle Ages). ... The political instability brought about by the barbarian invasion, made the Church as the only sought institution that provide good guidance and learning source. During that period, the popes have the two very effective tools to consolidate power in their office: excommunication and interdict. Excommunication was the first weapon. Catholics believe salvation depends on perpetual sacramental observance. Cutting a communicant off from the sacraments means one loses salvation. When the pope excommunicated a believer there was really "no hope" (Church History). The Interdict served as the pope's second weapon. What excommunication was to individuals, the interdict was to an entire nation. A papal interdict would suspend all public worship and withdrew the sacraments. After the interdict went into effect, Citizens usually pressured their rulers to repent or abdicate (Church History). Changes in the Medieval Italian Society and their Causes The Rise of Feudalism. The barbarian invasions of Italy and the rest of Europe left a power vacuum. The power vacuum is then filled by feudalism. In the feudal system, the king awarded land grants or "fiefs" to his most important nobles, his barons, and his bishops, in return for their contribution of soldiers for the king's armies. At the lowest echelon of society were the peasants, also called "serfs" or "villeins." In exchange for living and working on his land, known as the "demesne," the lord offered his peasants protection (What was it really like).Changes in Attitudes Towards Women. During the period, Women were usually treated as property. Passion was considered sinful to 11th and 12th century moralists, but these ideals were slowly being worn away with the rituals

Analyze an article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Analyze an - Article Example It is evident even when it comes to sourcing of finance. Manufacturing companies in Egypt are expected to give more collateral when seeking cash to finance import of raw materials. On the other hand, the Egyptian pound has dropped by 6.6% making exports low-priced. On the opposite, the price of fuel has increased. Therefore, companies incur higher cost of manufacturing. In the long run, the manufacturers end up getting minimal profits. Companies can reduce the risk of losing their customers by refraining from increasing the price of their commodities. When manufacturers pass the added cost incurred to the buyers, they stretch the ability of the consumers. Therefore, the customers will consider buying cheaper alternative goods. Manufacturers can also opt to seek to produce cheaper affordable goods. Customers will tend to spend the cash they had put aside as saving. Therefore, more money will be in circulation making the rate of inflation to go

Women’s Resource Center Essay Example for Free

Women’s Resource Center Essay Communication plays an important role in many areas of all fields of employment. I have recently come back to school to earn my MBA. Prior to entering school again I worked in the social work field as a support person, working for an organization called Women’s Resource Center through the United Way. While working for Women’s Resource Center I attended various trainings. Some of the trainings were effective and offered a lot of information which could be used on a regular basis in my position, while others offered little useful information. Effective communication is one of the most important roles for a presenter to have when offering trainings, trainings that I have attended have had both good and poor communication and therefore the outcome of the trainings is greatly affected by the presenter’s ability to communicate. One of the most effective trainings that I attended while working for the Women’s Resource Center was a training called â€Å"Suicide Prevention and Assessment. † The training was very successful in my opinion as it offered information and the practical used of this information in the field. This training used a variety of resources and ways to communicate the needs of the clients and the ways that suicide could be affectively prevented. The training also offered various communication strategies and principals. The trainers were able to present clinical documentation in a way that all could understand and they also were able to relate the clinical studies to real life situations that we as employees could be facing on a regular basis. This training included a wide range of communication strategies when effectively communicating the needs of the information. I learned through an oral presentation, video, power point presentation, and handouts. I was able to follow along both visually and audibly which helped as I could see and hear what was being said. Also the trainers talked on a real world level relating issues and terminology to situations that present themselves to the staff on a regular basis. Through this training I learned some great resources for affective communication. I also learned the importance of effective communication in trainings first hand as the information seemed so much more personal and needed then it would have had the communication occurred in another way. If I were to lead this training I would not change a thing. It was by far the most effective work training that I have ever attended and I was able to learn more during this training and I feel that the main reason for my ability to learn was that the presenters utilized such effective communication practices. I was fortunate to be a part of such a great suicide prevention training however I have also had training experiences where the communication was poor and I was unable to gain information that was valuable from them. One training that I attended where the communication skills were lacking was training on the skill of Motivational Interviewing. This training was presented in a clinical manner. It was presented in a lecture style, without any visualizations and without apparent relevance to the population with which I was working. This training offered some great information but the information was lost to the students as it came across in a manner that was not interesting or practical for the environment for which it was to be applied. I felt that this training used such poor overall communication skills that it was ineffective based on communication alone. There were many things that could have been done differently to make this training more effective and for this training to have better overall communication skills. The training would have first been improved by offering various styles of communication, some lecture, some visual, some hand outs and things that could be used later. The training also would have been more effective if it were applied to the situations that are faced on a daily basis by the staff. I felt that I would have learned a lot more if I had been told ways that this training would help and if I had been given real world examples to the ability of these trainings. This training taught me firsthand that useful information can be lost if not communicated in an affective manner and the importance of being effective in my communication when leading or planning trainings on any topic. I would change the format first, then the communication style and possibly the trainer’s ability to communicate the information affectively to those who are working in the field. I would have worked to develop training that was effective for those who were supposed to use it. Effective communication is important in all areas of business. One area where business can be drastically affected by communication is training. There are always going to be trainings that are needed in any field of employment however the effectiveness of this training can be improved and the staff can learn more if effective communication takes place. I learned through training in my past position that communication plays a much more important role in the possibility of teaching new information than I would have formerly thought. I would not have imagined that the communication of the presenter could determine how much of the information was absorbed and how much of the training information was determined to be useful if I had not previously taken these two trainings and experienced first hand the difference in communication and how it affects those whom you are training.

Madness and Insanity in Shakespeares Hamlet - Hamlet is Truly Sane :: The Tragedy of Hamlet Essays

Hamlet is Truly Sane In William Shakespeare's play, Hamlet, we meet an interesting character named Hamlet. His father is killed and he finds out it was his uncle who murdered him. This, among other events, is believed to drive Hamlet insane. But he is not insane, he merely puts on an act because he craves attention, and is really quite sane. There are little incidents that tell the truth of his state of mind. He plans ahead, before doing something important. He acts in a calm and rational manner (most of the time) when planning, and when carrying out this plan, acts irrational. Everything he does is done for a viable reason; there is a purpose to what he does and why he does it. Also, Hamlet is aware of what is going on around him, something someone insane would not see. Hamlet plans ahead before doing certain tasks. When the acting company comes along, Hamlet talks to himself discussing that the play will bring about the conscience of the killer. He thinks of a play where a man is killed by someone close, something that resembles Hamlet's father's murder. This was not done in a state of insanity, and it was not spurr-of-the-moment idea. Hamlet thought this through and planned it out ahead. People insane do not think to plan ahead and do not act in rational manner. When Hamlet does act irrationally, it is in front of people; it is as if Hamlet wants the world to think he is insane. But maybe his reason for acting insane is legitamite.   Ã‚  Ã‚   Many of Hamlet's actions are done for a viable reason. He does not go off and do random acts of violence or anything of the sort. When Hamlet was going to kill Claudius the first time, he stopped himself, because Claudius was in confession. If Hamlet had killed him there, all of Cladius' sins would have been wiped away, and Hamlet feared sending him to heaven, so he would wait for a better time to kill Claudius. When Hamlet was arguing with his mother and Polonius approaches, Hamlet assumes it was the King. They scuffle, and Hamlet stabs Polonius. Hamlet thought it was the King, a viable reason, just not true. The most important reason to prove Hamlet's sanity is that he is aware of what is going on around him.

The Public Private Education System Education Essay

The boundaries between the public and private proviso of schooling in Cambodia have become progressively blurred. While the figure of private schools remains fringy and by and large limited to elite schools in urban countries, denationalization is come ining public schools-invisibly and frequently unofficially-on an unprecedented graduated table. Given policy force per unit areas from international fiscal establishments, the boundaries between the populace and the private are sometimes purposefully erased by authorities functionaries in the name of cosmopolitan primary instruction and Education for All ( EFA ) in order to impart private financess into a badly underfunded public instruction system. In this context, the private proviso of instruction non merely becomes attractive to policymakers as a feasible mechanism in shuting the support spread but besides reflects authorities ‘s committedness to deregulating, decentalisation, and marketisation of the economic system since th e 1990s. In add-on to government-led attempts, concealed denationalization of instruction besides thrives at the grass-root degrees in the signifier of private tutoring, which allows instructors to supplement their meagre wages with extra income and offers pupils instruction of higher quality compared to public schools. Notwithstanding the positive facets of private tutoring-such as spread outing cognition and involvements for persons ( Bray, 2007 ) , roll uping human capital for societies ( Psacharopoulos & A ; Patrinos, 2002 ) , and supplying new schemes for get bying with rapid geopolitical passages for a assortment of instruction stakeholders ( Silova, 2009 ; Silova & A ; Brehm, 2013 ) -the private tutoring in Cambodia has grown in size to such an extent that it is now arguably greater in demand, value, and income coevals than the public instruction system. In kernel, private tutoring has become more of import to both instructors and pupils in Cambodia than the public instruction system because of its ability to bring forth higher incomes for instructors and supply a more complete ( and individualized ) instruction to pupils. The private proviso of instruction through private tutoring has assumed similar signifiers to public instruction, going both a differentiated demand ( focused chiefly on to pics examined on national trials or thought to supply better occupation chances ) and extra demand ( run intoing the unequal supply of public instruction ) . It has, in consequence, usurped the legitimacy of public instruction in Cambodia. Although the Kampuchean authorities made efforts to get rid of enrollment fees in the 1990s, prohibit informal fees like buying scrutiny documents from instructors in 2005, and label private tutoring unethical in 2008 ( see Asian Development Bank, 2008 ; Royal Government of Cambodia, 2008 ) , it has non enforced such policies. Left unregulated, the market for private tutoring has begun to falsify the mainstream course of study by switching important parts of curricular content from the populace to the private proviso of instruction. For illustration, some surveies report public school instructors â€Å" blackjacking † their ain pupils into go toing excess lessons ( Bray, 2007 ; Dawson, 2009 ) . Other surveies have shown a important sum of new curricular stuff or prep being presented in private tutoring categories ( Brehm & A ; Silova, 2012 ) . Since many instructors live in poorness because of limited or stretched income ( Benveniste et al. , 2008: 62 ) , keep backing informat ion during mainstream instruction becomes one manner to guarantee a market for private tutoring. Yet, the costs associated with private tutoring prohibit many pupils from go toing these auxiliary lessons, therefore lending to socioeconomic unfairnesss ( Bray, 1999a, 2007 ; Dawson, 2009 ) . Constructing on old research about the range and nature of private tutoring in Cambodia ( Bray, 2007 ; Dawson, 2009 ) , this survey aims to straight address quality and equity deductions of private tutoring in the broader context of denationalization of public instruction. The chief research inquiry examines why, how, and under what fortunes denationalization of public instruction takes the signifier of private tutoring and what deductions this concealed denationalization has for the quality and equity of instruction proviso for Kampuchean young person. Following an overview of old research on private tutoring in the Southeast Asian and international context, we situate the survey of private tutoring in the political, economic, and historical context of Cambodia. Pulling on qualitative and quantitative informations collected in 2011 in one territory in Cambodia ( including three schools in an urban location and three schools in a rural location ) , this survey identifies factors driv ing the demand for private tutoring, compares teaching methods used in public school categories and private tutoring lessons, and examines deductions of private tutoring for long-run societal and economic equity among Kampuchean young person.Gestating Private Tutoring:The Public-Private Hybrid Education SystemSystems of private tutoring are turning worldwide. In Europe, most European Union states experience some degree of private tutoring ( Bray, 2011 ) ; in the United States, private tutoring is estimated to be a US $ 5 billion industry ;[ 1 ]and in Hong Kong, private tutoring has become so popular that images of celebrated coachs are on a regular basis found in newspaper and coach advertizements ( Kwo & A ; Bray, 2011 ) . There is even a Chinese private tutoring company listed on the New York Stock Exchange.[ 2 ]However, private tutoring is non limited to Western and economically developed states. It has besides been found in states every bit diverse as Egypt ( Fergany, 1994 ) , I ndia ( Aggarwal, 1998 ) , and Kenya ( Nzomo et al. , 2001 ) . Asia is possibly the continent where private tutoring is most widespread ( Bray & A ; Lykins, 2012 ) , with the more economically advanced states, like South Korea, Taiwan and Hong Kong, being used as the empirical footing for what some have called â€Å" hyper-education † ( Dierkes, 2010 ) .[ 3 ] Despite the range of private tutoring worldwide and its peculiar prevalence in Asia, it however takes different signifiers depending on context. Bray ( 2009 ) conceptualizes private tutoring as an institutionalised fee-based auxiliary instruction that occurs because of a scope of issues including high bets proving, remedial categories, structural issues like overloaded course of study, and/or intensive societal competition. The common metaphor for private tutoring is â€Å" shadow instruction. † Yet, in our position, in Cambodia the shadow instruction metaphor misses the hybridisation between public and private schooling. Following the treatment of the larger literature on â€Å" shadow instruction † in the subdivisions below, we elaborate the conceptualisation of the intercrossed system of instruction found in Cambodia, concentrating on its divergent and convergent points with the â€Å" shadow † metaphor.The â€Å" shadow † metaphorPrivate tutoring is no rmally referred to as â€Å" shadow instruction † because it mimics ( or â€Å" shadows † ) mainstream schooling ( Stevenson & A ; Baker, 1992 ; Bray, 1999b ; Lee et al. , 2009 ) . The survey of private tutoring within this conceptualization is concerned with topics taught on the national course of study, non extracurricular activities, like guitar lessons or dance. The analogy to a sundial casting a shadow to state the transition of clip is frequently used to depict shadows cast by systems of instruction that tell about the alterations in society ( Bray, 2007, 2011 ; Bray & A ; Lykins, 2012 ) . In peculiar, Bray ( 2009 ) explains that the metaphor of the â€Å" shadow † is utile for several grounds: First, private supplementary tutoring merely exists because the mainstream instruction system exists ; 2nd, as the size and form of the mainstream system alteration, so make the size and form of auxiliary tutoring ; 3rd, in about all societies much more attending focuses on the mainstream than on its shadow ; and 4th, the characteristics of the shadow system are much less distinguishable than those of the mainstream system. ( p. 13 ) The shadow instruction metaphor clearly separates mainstream schooling from private tutoring, and focal points on how the two influence, and are influenced by, one another. Evidence of private tutoring around the universe suggests that there are multiple factors driving the demand for shadow instruction. First, the prevalence of high-stake scrutinies has created a demand for private tutoring among pupils to better prepare for and successfully pass assorted scrutinies necessary to progress to higher degrees of schooling. Second, private tutoring occurs when pupils need excess aid in get the hanging a certain accomplishment or subject that has proven excessively hard to understand during mainstream schooling. Third, there are assorted structural issues that cause private tutoring, such as short school yearss and low instructor wages. Impacting all three of these factors is the increased social force per unit area put on parents and pupils to win in school. Acting as a non-academic fact or taking to private tutoring, equal force per unit area besides exacerbates the demand for excess categories, as parents and pupils perceive private tutoring as an effectual manner to gain an advantage in school, sometimes despite any existent additions in academic accomplishment. High-stakes scrutinies Within the â€Å" shadow † metaphor, private tutoring is often associated with an â€Å" enrichment scheme, † foregrounding its function in fixing pupils for high-stakes scrutinies ( Baker & A ; LeTendre, 2005: 61 ) . In peculiar, high-stakes scrutinies increase pupil and parental anxiousnesss about keeping, registration, or graduation. The premise is that high-stakes scrutinies serve as â€Å" a gate-keeper to instruction and labour market chances † ( Baker & A ; LeTendre, 2005: 62 ) and that pupil success on high-stakes scrutinies would take to better instruction and employment chances in the hereafter. This is why â€Å" cram schools † have emerged in many states to fix pupils of assorted academic abilities ( from remedial to high winners ) for high-stakes scrutinies. For illustration, Tansel and Bircan ( 2006 ) study that extremely competitory higher instruction entryway scrutinies in Turkey create the demand for private tutoring. Similarly, the second ary school choice procedure in Japan reportedly produces a strong logic for pupils to go to juku, an establishment offering a assortment of private tutoring lessons across all educational degrees ( Sawada & A ; Kobayashi, 1986 ; Russell, 2002 ; Roesgaard, 2006 ; Dierkes, 2008 ; Dawson, 2010 ) . Some surveies, nevertheless, have questioned the nexus between high-stakes scrutinies and private tutoring. For illustration, Aurini and Davis ( 2004 ) observed that tutoring concerns are turning well in Canada despite the fact that Canadian universities lack university entryway scrutinies and are non arrayed on a steep prestigiousness hierarchy, as are universities in other states such as the United States and Japan. Although Cambodia has what look to be â€Å" high-stakes † scrutinies in class 9 and grade 12,[ 4 ]the commoditisation of instruction that has resulted from the neoliberal structural accommodation policies in the 1990s has practically eliminated the high-stakes nature of these scrutinies. This has occurred because multiple goods and services are sold during the full scrutiny procedure, go forthing the demand to really analyze or â€Å" cram † for the scrutiny to lone pupils who can non afford the assorted fees or pupils who are ethically opposed to educational corruptness. First, scrutiny replies or mention ushers ( â€Å" cheat-sheets † ) can be purchased from local photocopy shops yearss or hours before the scrutiny. The assorted reply or darnel sheets cost different monetary values depending on their â€Å" known † quality ( i.e. , whether the beginning of the reply or mention sheet is known to come from a instructor, a certain location, an decision mak er, or others ) . Why would pupils â€Å" cram † for scrutinies when they can easy buy replies before the trial? Second, during the scrutiny, many services can be purchased from the two monitors ( instructors administrating the scrutiny ) in each schoolroom or accountants ( the instructor supervising a group of monitors ) standing outside. Students can pay monitors to allow them utilize either mini-textbooks purchased at a photocopy Centre, answer sheets, or work in groups. Additionally, for a higher monetary value, some monitors or accountants are willing to assist pupils by either filling in a clean scrutiny sheet and go throughing it along to pupils, or supplying one-on-one aid during the scrutiny. Sometimes during the procedure, pupils pay monitors, monitors pay accountants, and accountants pay supervisors ( instructors in charge of a group of accountants ) -all to maintain eyes looking elsewhere.[ 5 ]In some instances, parents pay a fee to guarantee a certain monitor or accountant is assigned to their kid ‘s category in order for that pupil to have aid on the more hard topics ( typically mathematics or chemical science ) from a instructor who teaches those topics. The jobs of rip offing on national scrutinies have repeatedly made headlines in the Kampuchean intelligence, but the assorted patterns are widely known to go on despite official warnings ( see Cheng, 2011 ; Chhron, 2010 ; Saoyuth, 2010 ) . As the gloss of any instruction meritocratic order is all but eliminated by the many fees during the scrutiny procedure, these trials are â€Å" high-stakes † in name merely ; few if any pupils feel force per unit area from the scrutiny beyond non holding adequate money to guarantee a high grade. In fact, pupils unable to pay the high costs typically drop out far before the national scrutinies.[ 6 ] Remedial tutoring Private tutoring is frequently thought of as assisting some pupils maintain up with the content taught in authorities school. For illustration, de Silva ( 1994 ) identified several factors that create the demand for remedial tutoring: â€Å" pupil and instructor absence, frequent closing of school, uneffective instruction and carelessness on the portion of the instructor, † every bit good as â€Å" immature, inexperienced or unqualified instructors managing these topics may non be able to take the pupils to a proper apprehension of the subdivisions taught † ( p. 5 ) . In these fortunes, remedial private tutoring serves to â€Å" get the better of these spreads or lacks in pupils ‘ acquisition and construct their assurance enabling them to vie with others and see a happy and pleasant life † ( p. 5 ) . In add-on to demand for remedial private tutoring by pupils and parents, some authoritiess have besides mandated or encouraged the usage of it. The educational system of Bosnia and Herzegovina, for illustration, provides compulsory auxiliary categories for remedial pupils. Traditionally, if more than 50 per centum of the pupils in a category are holding jobs get the hanging the capable affair, the instructor is obliged to form alleged â€Å" remedial categories † in that topic. Remedial categories are held after regular school hours and are an chance for the instructor to make extra work with fighting pupils ( Husremovic & A ; Trbic, 2006 ) . Vouchers are another manner authoritiess can promote the usage of remedial private tutoring. In Australia, the authorities uses verifiers to fund pupils who fall behind to take remedial private tutoring categories ( Bishop, 2007 ) . Remedial private tutoring is besides available in Cambodia, but it is merely one of the many types of private tutoring ( see Table 1 ) . Students who need excess aid with assorted school topics can buy extra educational services to make full spreads in their cognition. However, this is non the chief ground for go toing private tutoring lessons. By and large, Kampuchean pupils attend private tutoring lessons conducted by their instructors as a continuance of their regular school twenty-four hours, non needfully for redress intents ( Brehm & A ; Silova, 2012 ) . If pupils need remedial tutoring, they would hold to take these lessons in add-on to â€Å" regular † private tutoring ( Rien Kuo[ 7 ]) . Remedial private tutoring is frequently referred to as â€Å" excess particular private tutoring † ( Rien Kuo Pises ) and is offered by instructors to pupils in one-on-one or little group lessons. Typically, these remedial categories cost more than Rien Kuo ( regular private tut oring ) , sometimes every bit high as US $ 100 monthly for one hr of analyzing one topic. However, the separation of these two types of private tutoring is non ever along remedial lines. Some pupils attend Rien Kuo when they need excess aid on a certain lesson, and some pupils attend Rien Kuo Pises because it offers a better acquisition environment than Rien Kuo. Structural issues The demand for private tutoring besides stems from structural issues, such as an overladen course of study, deficiency of fiscal resources, or educational corruptness. First, overloaded course of study is frequently attributed to the turning demand for private tutoring, proposing that public school instructors may prosecute in private tutoring after school to learn the stuff they were unable to cover during school hours. For illustration, course of study reforms implemented in many of the post-Soviet democracies in the 1990s â€Å" stretched the bing course of study † by presenting new academic topics ( e.g. , information and communicating engineerings, civics, and foreign linguistic communications ) without well altering the familial Soviet course of study. In Lithuania, Budiene and Zabulounis ( 2006: 213 ) study that the freshly introduced student-centred instruction methods consumed more clip than the old teacher-centred attacks. Private tutoring was therefore used to run i nto the demand for more clip necessary to finish the needed national course of study, utilizing new teaching/learning methodological analysiss. The association between an overladen course of study and private tutoring is besides reported in surveies of private tutoring in Cyprus, Indonesia, Lebanon, Nigeria, and Russia, ( Bray, 2007: 37 ) , every bit good as Southeast/Central Europe and Central Asia ( Silova, 2009 ; Silova et al. , 2006 ) . In Cambodia, pupils and parents perceive private tutoring as a mechanism enabling instructors to decently learn the topics included in the national course of study ( Brehm & A ; Silova, 2012 ) . In peculiar, many parents believe that there is merely non adequate clip in the school twenty-four hours to cover all course of study, doing specific mentions to the decrease of the school twenty-four hours following the debut of double- and triple-shift schooling. Despite the few reported instances of instructors purposefully â€Å" decelerating down â €  content bringing to make a market for private tutoring ( Bray, 1999a: 55 ) , the sensed deficiency of clip nonetheless leads to a perceived demand for more instructional clip merely to supply needed coverage of the national course of study. Second, low educational outgos contribute to the demand for private tutoring. In states financially unable to adequately back up public instruction, private tutoring emerges as a mechanism to supplement low instructor wages, provide smaller category sizes, and offer larning stuffs to pupils outside the national course of study ( Silova, et al. , 2006 ; Silova, 2009 ; Bray, 2010 ; for the Kampuchean instance see Bray & A ; Bunly, 2005 ; Silova & A ; Brehm, 2013 ) . For illustration, Cambodia spends 2.3 per centum of GDP on instruction, puting it among the lowest in the Southeast Asia part and below the universe ‘s norm of 4.8 per centum ( European Commission, 2012 ) . Although the budget allotment to the MoEYS recurrent outgos experienced an addition starting in the 2000s, there has been a steady lessening since 2007 ( see Figure 1 ) . Harmonizing to the European Commission ( 2012 ) , there was a downward tendency in budgeted recurrent outgos between 2007 ( 19.2 per centum ) and 2012 ( 15.9 per centum ) .[ 8 ]Meanwhile, surveies have found that families contribute a larger portion on the instruction per kid than does the authorities: whereas the authorities spends on mean US $ 50 per kid per twelvemonth ( Ratcliff, 2009: 11 ) , households spend between US $ 48 ( rural countries ) to US $ 157 ( urban countries ) per kid per twelvemonth ( NEP, 2007: 18 ) . Of family instruction outgos, about 38 per centum goes to education fees, which includes the cost of private tutoring ( NEP, 2007 ) .Figure 1. MoEYS Budgeted and Actual Recurrent OutgosBeginning: Education Sector Working Group, 2006 ; European Commission, 2012 Third, the deficiency of educational resources disproportionately impact teacher rewards. In Cambodia, there has been a wide consensus among pedagogues, brotherhood leaders, decision makers, and society in general that instructor wages are deficient to cover life disbursals ( Benveniste et al. , 2008 ) . In 2007, for illustration, a primary instructor ‘s base wage was US $ 44 per month, which made it hard ( if non impossible ) for many instructors to afford the basic necessities of nutrient, lodging, and heath attention, every bit good as support any kids or aged household members ( Benveniste et al. , 2008: 59 ) .[ 5 ]To some extent, private tutoring has helped underpaid instructors generate extra income. For illustration, a common 2nd business among Kampuchean instructors, particularly in urban primary schools, is private tutoring ( 41.5 per centum of urban instructors identified tutoring as out-of-school work ; [ Benveniste et al. , 2008: 69 ] ) . Net incomes from private tu toring can stand for about two tierces of the monthly mean base wage with basic allowances ( Benveniste et al. , 2008: 38 ) . Similar to instructors in other geographic countries ( such as the Southeast/Central Europe and the former Soviet Union ) , many Kampuchean instructors have adopted the logic of â€Å" service proviso, † utilizing private tutoring as a cardinal income-generation activity ( Silova & A ; Bray, 2006 ) . Fourth, there is hold in the allotment of financess. In Cambodia, both teacher wages and Programme-Based Budgeting ( unallocated money intended for single schools, which used to be called the Priority Action Programme, or PAP ) are routinely distributed tardily. Teachers have claimed that the distribution of rewards is typically delayed ( VSO, 2008 ) . For illustration, salary expense in January 2012 had non been allocated to instructors in seven states by the terminal of the month ( Denn Ayuthyea, 2012 ) . Anecdotal narratives sing the Programme-Based Budgeting indicate that the money is frequently disbursed yearss before the District or Provincial Offices of Education require a study detailing how the money was spent. This typically leads to distort studies detailing where money was â€Å" exhausted † merely to run into the demands of the MoEYS. A 2nd issue with delayed financess is the escape that occurs between the Ministry of Economy and Finance ( the ministry responsible for let go ofing money to the MoEYS ) and when it reaches instructors. As money is passed from the Economy and Finance Ministry to the MoEYS, which is so sent to the Provincial and District Offices of Education and so eventually received by the schools, money is lost ( or â€Å" cut † in Khmer ) at each phase. One common ailment from instructors is that their wages are ne'er the right sum. Combined, low wages-made even lower by leakage-require instructors to keep 2nd occupations, which about 70 percent claim to hold ( Benveniste et al. , 2008: 68 ) . Finally, structural issues that lead to private tutoring by authorities instructors may ensue in what many perceivers consider educational corruptness ( Chapman, 2002 ) . Educational corruptness has been defined as any pattern where a instructor uses his or her monopoly of power ( delegating classs, allowing admittance, etc. ) over his or her pupils in a system with small answerability ( Bray, 2003 ) . Contributions given to instructors by pupils, for illustration, have been labelled as a â€Å" baneful pattern † ( Hallack & A ; Poisson, 2008: 253 ) because some instructors may honor pupils who donate and punish those who do non. The pattern of instructors keeping private tutoring lessons for their ain pupils, nevertheless, is more hard to clearly label educational corruptness. For illustration, Johnson ( 2011 ) has provided grounds that Kyrgyzstani â€Å" pupils blame the context, non the perpetrators [ i.e. , instructors ] † ( p. 254 ) of corruptness, because â€Å" workers perceived to be lending to the grater good of societyaˆÂ ¦ [ are allowed to ] pervert from the jurisprudence † ( p. 253 ) . Furthermore, Dawson ( 2009: 71 ) â€Å" problematize [ vitamin D ] the word picture of the pattern as ‘corruption ‘ † in Cambodia â€Å" with consideration toward the grossly unequal income of province instructors and the jobs built-in with curriculum clip, content, and instructor teaching methods in the system † by locating the pattern of private tutoring within the â€Å" broad social issues. † To sum up, the â€Å" shadow instruction † metaphor assumes that private tutoring can react to the single pupil demands ( e.g. , maintaining up with the needed school course of study or bettering academic public presentation on trials ) and even systemic educational jobs ( e.g. , overloaded course of study or low instructor wages ) with the aid of the â€Å" shadow instruction † market. For under-achieving pupils, private tutoring may offer an chance for remedial instruction after school hours. For competitively minded pupils, private tutoring may help with more intensive readying for high-stakes scrutinies. For underpaid instructors, private tutoring may supply chances for auxiliary income. And, in the context of an overladen course of study, private tutoring may supply a infinite for pedagogues to learn the stuff that was non covered at school. On the surface, most of the factors normally associated with the turning demand for private tutoring are present in the Kampu chean context. However, they do non explicate the complicated agreements between the public educational system and private tutoring that emerged in the 1990s ( see Brehm & A ; Silova, 2012 ; Brehm, forthcoming A ) . As we suggest in this survey, private tutoring is non a shadow that is separate from mainstream schooling. As the Kampuchean instance illustrates, it may be best understood as a cardinal component in a intercrossed agreement between public schooling and private tutoring, which operates as one individual system and casts its ain shadow.The â€Å" intercrossed † metaphorThe metaphor of a â€Å" shadow † system of instruction reaches its conceptual bounds in the context of Cambodia. During our research, we have found that the term caused more confusion than lucidity among Kampuchean faculty members, instructors, pupils, parents, and policymakers. The ground being that the term â€Å" shadow instruction † suggests fee-based private tutoring is separate f rom, although influenced by, mainstream ( authorities ) school: no affair how a shadow is distorted by the form or size of its object, it will ne'er be the object projecting the shadow. The premise is that the shadow and object are basically separate. In Cambodia, nevertheless, it is normally understood that a kid ‘s instruction requires both authorities and private tutoring categories. Both are inseparable parts of one system necessary to have a complete instruction. As the mainstream schooling progressively relies on private tutoring to complement what is defined as â€Å" instruction, † the shadow and object of schooling have become one. Students typically attend one displacement ( 4 or 5 hours ) of authorities school and so go to another displacement of private tutoring categories ( 1-4 hours, depending on pupil ) each twenty-four hours, sometimes including Sundays, public vacations, and summer holiday. Students who can afford the 300-1000 Riel ( US $ 0.08-0.25 ) hourly fee for private tutoring return to school ( or teacher ‘s place ) to hold their authorities school teacher offer lessons in what appears to be the same system of instruction. In both private tutoring and authorities school categories, further more, everything is for sale, therefore film overing the lines between what is â€Å" public † ( and free ) and â€Å" private ( and for sale ) . This intercrossed system does non wipe out some of the characteristics found in â€Å" shadow † instruction worldwide. Rather, the intercrossed system of instruction that includes both authorities and private tutoring categories has cast a shadow of its ain: some pupils will go to both authorities school and private tutoring categories with their authorities school teacher and schoolmates, and so buy extra remedial or elected private tutoring in one-on-one or group settings-what is called excess particular private tutoring-at a higher cost. There are even companies offering scrutiny readying classs to pupils in the capital, Phnom Penh. Thus, the boundaries between the typical construct of â€Å" shadow † instruction and the mainstream system of instruction, which is being privatized by private tutoring, are progressively blurred in the Kampuchean context.Public-Private Hybrid Education SystemIn the Kampuchean context, private tutoring is best understood in footings of a public-private intercrossed instruction system where public schooling and private tutoring seamlessly merge, projecting its ain shadow. This conceptualisation implies that private tutoring is a compulsory ( private ) part of public instruction, non a deformed shadow, and therefore complements mainstream schooling where it is structurally lacking. Unlike the metaphor of a â€Å" shadow, † the construct of a public-private intercrossed system suggests that public schooling and private tutoring constitute two parts of one system. This conceptualisation moves off from auxiliary private tutoring ( that is, lessons that are excess to the national course of study ) and towards complementary private tutoring ( that is, lessons that are indispensable to the national course of study ) . A public-private intercrossed system of instruction implies that pupils are required to go to and pay for both public schooling and private tutoring to successfully finish the full national course of study. The map of complementary private tutoring therefore extends far beyond â€Å" shadowing † the mainstream system through remedial and/or enrichment instruction chances ( although these signifiers of auxiliary private tutoring continue to be in Cambodia ) . In the Kampuchean context, the chief signifier of complementary private tutoring-w hat is called Rien Kuo-assumes the maps of the mainstream instruction system itself by functioning as an of import mechanism necessary to finish the needed national course of study and increase teacher salaries-both structural failures that have complicated histories through Gallic colonialism, race murder, Soviet support, and broad internationalism/neoliberalism. As an built-in portion of the public-private intercrossed instruction system, private tutoring assumes the same schoolroom features and teaching method as mainstream schooling. Not merely does private tutoring occur inside authorities school edifices ( and frequently in the same schoolrooms where pupils receive official authorities school direction ) and is offered by public school instructors ( normally by the same instructors pupils have during regular school hours ) , but besides each category operates and maps in surprisingly similar ways. In peculiar, the usage of learning AIDSs, group work, interchanging pupil work, blending high and low ability pupils together, and even homework assignments happen in more or less the same mode in authorities school as private tutoring categories ( Brehm & A ; Silova, 2012 ) . In other words, it operates as a seamless system, which merely maps efficaciously when the two parts-public schooling and private tutoring-are offered in tandem. Furtherm ore, the public-private intercrossed instruction system does non halt operation when school is officially closed. Alternatively, instruction continues in the signifier of Rien Kuo Pel Vissmakkal ( Vacances ) or excess survey during vacations ( holiday ) , when kids attend private tutoring lessons during public vacations and summer interruptions to either complete the old twelvemonth ‘s course of study or acquire a head start on the approaching twelvemonth ‘s course of study. In a manner, private tutoring seems to hold been consistently integrated in mainstream schooling, organizing an institutionalised public-private intercrossed educational agreement.Table 1. Different Types of Private Tutoring in CambodiaPublic-Private Hybrid Education SystemRien KuoExtra surveySome instructors conduct private tutoring lessons to their ain pupils after school hours either in school edifices or in their place. The focal point is on covering needed school course of study, which is non ta ught during school hours. This is the most common signifier of tutoring and the focal point of this survey. It is besides referred to as Rean Boban Porn ( auxiliary survey ) or Rean Chhnuol ( survey for hire ) . Rien Kuo Pel Vissmakkal ( Vacances )Extra survey during vacations ( holiday )When pupils finish school in July or August, they frequently have the pick of go toing private tutoring lessons during the summer interruption. These categories are either conducted by their pervious class ‘s instructor to complete the course of study from that class or by the following class ‘s instructor to get down the course of study before the following school twelvemonth. This gives instructors plenty time-either at the beginning or terminal of the year-to complete the national course of study.Shadow EducationRien Kuo PisesExtra particular surveyGovernment school teachers conduct private tutoring lessons one-on-one or for little groups of pupils, typically from the instructors ‘ authorities category. These lessons are conducted after school hours either at the instructor ‘s place or a pupil ‘s place. This type of private tutoring is more expensive than the former, sometime s bing every bit much as $ 100 per month for one-on-one tutoring. This type of private tutoring is either used by pupils for remedial lessons ( i.e. , shadow instruction ) or for replacing authorities school wholly. Indeed, we found one instance during our informations aggregation where a pupil came into understanding with his instructor to go to one-on-one Rien Kuo Pises and was non required to go to authorities school on a regular basis because his instructor would tag him present. This type of Rien Kuo Pises resembles private schooling more closely than shadow or intercrossed instruction. Sala AkchoanPrivate ( tutoring ) schoolThere are many types of private schools in Cambodia. From English linguistic communication based schools to private universities to engineering developing centres-all of these schools are considered Sala Akchoan ( private survey ) . However, there is one type of private survey within this class that is portion of the shadow instruction system. In Phnom Penh ( and possibly other urban countries ) , there are a few trial readying centres that fill schoolrooms each dark as pupils â€Å" cram † for the national scrutinies and university entryway scrutinies. The most celebrated is named Chey Thavy, which was started by a chemical science professor from the Royal University of Phnom Penh. For the class 12 scrutinies, many pupils start fixing in grade 10 or 11. Preparation for the university scrutinies typically takes topographic point during the four months between the class 12 scrutinies ( July/August ) and when the university scrutinies are a dministered. Rien Kuo Anglais/BarangEnglish/French supernumerary surveyGet downing in lower secondary school, the national course of study requires pupils to take foreign linguistic communication, either English ( Anglais ) or Gallic ( Barang ) . Despite that these linguistic communications are on the course of study, some pupils purchase excess categories outside of authorities school in countless private educational centres/schools/homes. This intercrossed system of instruction has besides cast its ain shadow, reflecting the typical maps of private tutoring found within the â€Å" shadow † metaphor ( see Table 1 ) . Similar to private tutoring in other geographic contexts, remedial and enrichment tutoring chances are available in add-on to the traditional Rien Kuo in Cambodia. In peculiar, pupils who need excess assist understanding assorted topics can buy extra educational services to increase their cognition. This type of tutoring is less common and is often referred to as Rien Kuo Pises or â€Å" excess particular private tutoring. † It is offered in the signifier of one-on-one tutoring or little group lessons for pupils who need excess aid get the hanging certain topics. These categories typically cost more than Rien Kuo, sometimes every bit high as US $ 100 per month for a day-to-day category on one school topic. In add-on, private tutoring for enrichment intents is available through private tutorin g concerns in Phnom Phen, where pupils â€Å" cram † for high-stakes scrutinies. In other words, the intercrossed system-where public schooling is integrated with private tutoring-casts a shadow that is comprised of assorted remedial and enrichment tutoring infinites. Building on the bing research of private tutoring in Cambodia, this survey examines the equity issues ensuing from a public-private intercrossed system of schooling. This research looks at the differences and similarities between private tutoring ( Rien Kuo ) and authorities school categories. Datas from this research undertaking has besides been used in other publications to analyze how private tutoring is an extension of authorities school in footings of teaching method and curricular content ( Brehm & A ; Silova, 2012 ) ; the building of a post-conflict societal contract in the 1990s and its impact on the impression of public instruction ( Brehm, forthcoming A ) ; and a historical analysis of mandatory instruction ( Brehm, forthcoming B ) . A Khmer version of this study ( although non a direct interlingual rendition ) is besides available ( Tuot & A ; Brehm, 2012 ) . This study takes an in-depth expression at instruction inside authorities schools and private tutoring schoolrooms, every bit good as the deductions of private tutoring for instruction quality and equity, therefore offering a elaborate reappraisal of the informations collected for this OSI funded research undertaking ( Silova & A ; Brehm, 2011 ) .Research Design and MethodsThe research design consisted of three parts, including ( 1 ) an scrutiny of the province constructions, policies, and local patterns that allow for the being of the private proviso of instruction through private tutoring ; ( 2 ) the differences in the quality of instruction proviso between public schools and private tutoring ; and ( 3 ) the equity impacts on instruction and Kampuchean society because of any quality differences and known cost barriers to accessing private tutoring ( see Figure 2 ) . Using participatory research attacks, this survey utilized methods normally used in Participatory Rural Appraisals ( PRA ) . One of the benefits of utilizing PRA methods is that â€Å" it provides a huge range and infinite for both people every bit good as foreigners to actively take part at every phase † of the research ( Narayanasamy, 2009: 26 ) . By keeping focal point groups ( 5-7 people ) and carry oning one-on-one interviews with many instruction stakeholders ( sample described in item below ) , our informations involved the engagement of many people within both the urban and rural schools under probe. The semi-structured focal point groups provided infinite for participants to research issues of quality instruction and the function private tutoring has on educational equity. We conducted semi-structured interviews as good over the class of the twelve-month informations aggregation period to make common apprehension and trust between the research workers and respondents in hopes of bring forthing more accurate information on subjects that could be sensitive. Additionally, informal interviews helped us by â€Å" prosecuting in existent or constructed duologues in order to understand the people studied in their ain footings ( sometimes described as the insider ‘s position ) † ( England cited in Sin, 2010: 986 ) . Another benefit of utilizing the PRA method is triangulation of information. Our design incorporated non merely data triangulation ( roll uping informations from persons and the synergistic degree among groups ) but besides investigator triangulation and methodological triangulation. Some focal point groups were conducted by a squad of two research workers who so worked through their findings jointly. Furthermore, these informations points were compared with informations points obtained utilizing different methods, viz. , schoolroom observations and the analysis of academic accomplishment ( monthly classs and attending ) for pupils who were go toing private tutoring lessons and those who are non. Additionally, we built off historical analyses and updated papers analyses of authorities policies in old research to the present. The methods used in each school are described below and the instruments used to roll up the informations can be found in the appendix.Figure 2. Research Design a nd MethodsThis survey is based on informations collected between January and December 2011. The sample included six schools in one territory in Cambodia, including three schools in an urban location and three schools in a rural location.[ 6 ]The territory is economically and geographically diverse, offering penetration into assorted countries throughout Cambodia. The sample was intentionally chosen to reflect a scope of private tutoring costs in different schools depending on their geographic ( urban or rural ) location. After roll uping preliminary informations on the cost for one session of private tutoring within all lower secondary schools ( 13 ) in the territory, we selected one lower secondary school with the highest private tutoring costs ( 1,000 Riel, or about US $ 0.25, per session ) and one with lowest ( 500 Riel, or about US $ 0.13, per session ) , which besides corresponded to urban and rural countries severally. We so worked backwards to happen two primary schools that fed into each lower secondary school. The concluding schools selected were chosen by their willingness to take part in the survey.ObservationsA sum of 28 observations were conducted, including 14 observations of public school categories and 14 observations of private tutoring lessons ( see Table 2 ) . However, these observations did non include private tutoring lessons in rural primary schools, because no such lessons were held during the four months of informations aggregation. Observation rubrics were developed utilizing instruments from a World Bank commissioned study on Cambodia ( Benveniste et al. , 2008 ) that focused on learning methodological analysis, schoolroom features, and category clip usage. The inquiries within each of these classs were so compiled into an observation checklist adapted for the last twelvemonth of primary and secondary school ( classs 6 and 9 severally ) , and used for observations of teaching/learning procedures in both public school categories and pr ivate tutoring lessons.[ 7 ]Table 2. Number of Observations by Subject and GradeClassCapableNumber of ObservationsGovernment ClassPrivate TutoringEntireGrade 6 Khmer 7 2 9 Matematics 1 1 2 Grade 9 Khmer 3 2 5 Mathematicss 1 2 3 Physicss 2 3 5 Chemistry 0 4 4Entire141428Tracking pupil attending and accomplishmentDatas on academic accomplishment and attending came from tracking 444 pupils ( see Table 3 ) , including 162 pupils in primary school ( rate 6 ) and 282 pupils in secondary school ( rate 9 ) . The pupils tracked in class 9 came from six categories[ 9 ]across four topics: mathematics, Khmer linguistic communication, chemical science, and natural philosophies. Although we were able to track the same categories in the rural school across all topics, a different group of categories was tracked in each of the topics in the urban secondary school. Therefore, although 282 pupils in class 9 were tracked, the figure of alone pupils in each topic varies depending on which group of categories was tracked in the urban class 9: 171 pupils in mathematics, 208 pupils in chemical science, and 203 pupils in Khmer linguistic communication.[ 10 ]At the primary degree, one category of pupils was tracked in each school.Table 3. Trailing of Student A ttendance and Achievement ( Sample )Experience with Private TutoringLocationEntireRuralUrbanPrimary Private Tutoring 24 43 67 No Private Tutoring 67 28 95 Entire Number of Tracked Students at the Primary Level 162 Lower Secondary Private Tutoring 75 118 193 No Private Tutoring 38 51 89 Entire Number of Tracked Students at the Secondary Level 282Entire Number of Tracked Students444Student attending of private tutoring lessons was tracked utilizing a private tutoring attending sheet specifically designed for this survey. While most participants used the attending sheet, pupil attending in private tutoring within some urban class 9 and all rural class 6 categories was provided by either the remembrances of the instructor, the entire money collected from pupils by the instructor, or an attendance sheet. These tracking systems were discussed separately with each instructor by traveling through the attending list from school and holding the instructor identify either how much money each pupil provided for private tutoring ( a record kept by some instructors ) or by bespeaking their perceptual experiences of how frequently a pupil attended private tutoring ( either by memory or an attendance sheet designed by the instructor ) . This allowed us to place which pupils attended at least one private tutoring lesson during our inform ations aggregation period. The principal of each school provided authorities attending and monthly class sheets. Data presented here screens attendance and monthly classs for one month,[ 11 ]leting for a comparing of academic accomplishment and private tutoring attending among pupils who attend private tutoring and those who do non. The academic tonss for class 9 focused on the topics of mathematics, Khmer linguistic communication, and chemical science. For class 6, we focused on a combination of mathematics and Khmer linguistic communication ( Khmer command, Khmer authorship, and Khmer reading ) . Although the sample is little, covers a short clip, and does non take into consideration external factors impacting pupil accomplishment ( parental instruction, past educational experience of the pupil, proviso of tutoring other than that provided by the instructor, etc. ) , our intent here was non to find causing between private tutoring and pupil accomplishment, but instead to foreground a disparity between pupils who go and do non travel to private tutoring as one factor that divides pupils and contributes to inequality.Focus groups and interviewsFocus groups and interviews were conducted with pupils, parents, and instructors. Participants were selected by confer withing the principal or instructor of each school o r category, who so helped set up interviews and concentrate groups with community members and pupils. Although the principal or instructor could hold purposefully selected or prepared participants, this scheme was the lone politically executable option given authorities limitations. Notwithstanding these restrictions, we did happen all participants willing to speak openly approximately private tutoring and its exclusionary characteristics. Overall, 21 focal point groups were conducted, which included a sum of 118 participants ( see Table 4 ) . Focus groups were split by stakeholder groups ( pupils, instructors, and parents ) and so by their engagement in private tutoring lessons. The end of dividing the stakeholders was to increase the comfort degree among persons in each focal point group in order to research their experiences with private tutoring. The focal point groups besides discussed perceptual experiences of the impact of tutoring on instruction quality and equity. In add-on , informal interviews were conducted with 21 participants, including instructors, pupils, parents, and principals from other schools. These informal interviews focused on the experiences of persons with private tutoring, assisting us to construe some of the findings from the observations and concentrate groups.Table 4. Number of Focus Groups ( and Participants ) in Rural and Urban AreasStakeholdersPrimaryLower SecondaryCombinedClass DegreesEntireRuralUrbanRuralUrbanRuralUrbanTeachers ( entire )6 ( 28 )Private tutoring 1 ( 3 ) 1 ( 3 ) 1 ( 8 ) 3 ( 14 ) Non-private tutoring 2 ( 7 ) 1 ( 5 ) 3 ( 12 )Students ( entire )11 ( 69 )Private tutoring 2 ( 14 ) 2 ( 12 ) 1 ( 7 ) 1 ( 5 ) 6 ( 38 ) Non-private tutoring 2 ( 12 ) 2 ( 12 ) 1 ( 7 ) 5 ( 31 )Parents ( sum )4 ( 23 )Private tutoring 1 ( 5 ) 1 ( 4 ) 2 ( 9 ) Non-private tutoring 1 ( 5 ) 1 ( 9 ) 2 ( 14 )Entire21 ( 118 )Note: The Numberss in parenthesis are the entire figure of participants within each class.Document analysisDocument analysis included a reappraisal of authorities policies and Torahs related to instruction support and instructor wages. In add-on, we analyzed assorted studies on instruction quality and equity in Cambodia published by non-governmental organisations ( NGOs ) and international bureaus ( such as the World Bank, UNICEF, and UNESCO ) . Combined, informations gained through papers analysis, schoolroom observations, academic accomplishment and attending, every bit good as focal point groups and interviews were triangulated to ease proof of informations through cross confirmation from multiple beginnings and informations aggregation techniques. See Table 5 for an overview of the research methods.Table 5. Overview of Research MethodsObservationsA sum of 28 observations were conducted, including 14 observations of public school categories and 14 observati ons of private tutoring lessons. In primary schools, observations were conducted in mathematics and Khmer linguistic communication categories. In lower secondary schools, observations were conducted in Khmer linguistic communication, mathematics, natural philosophies, and chemical science. The same observation process was held for private tutoring lessons conducted by each instructor. How does the instructor Teach during mainstream instruction ( learning methods and curriculum content ) ? Does the instructor favor certain pupils? Who are they? What are the learning methods and content in private tutoring? How are the two instruction manners different?Trailing of Student Attendance and AchievementDatas on academic accomplishment and attending came from tracking 444 pupils, including 162 pupils in primary schools ( rate 6 ) and 282 pupils in secondary schools ( rate 9 ) . The end was to analyze whether ( and how ) private tutoring impacts pupils academic accomplishment in different topics. What are the differences in pupils ‘ academic accomplishment for those who do and make no go to private tutoring?Focus Groups and InterviewsFocus groups with pupils, parents, and instructors were held over the class of informations aggregation to analyze their experiences with private tutoring and their perceptual experience about the impact of private tutoring on instruction entree and quality. A sum of 21 focal point groups were conducted. In add-on, A sum of 21 informal interviews were conducted with parents, instructors, and pupils throughout the informations aggregation period. What are the chief grounds kids attend private tutoring? Which topics are most popular? How much does it be? What are the difference in learning between private tutoring and authorities school? How does private tutoring impact you, your household, and your small town?Document AnalysisGovernment policies and Torahs related to instruction, 1992-present. Focus on authorities support of instruction and instructor wages. What are the system-driven factors ( national policies and Torahs ) lending to the rise of private tutoring?The Nature, Impact, and Implications of Rien Kuo:FindingssConcentrating on the range, nature, and deductions of Rien Kuo, the findings of the survey are organized around the undermentioned three chief classs: ( 1 ) course of study differences between Rien Kuo and mainstream schooling, ( 2 ) accomplishment differences among pupils go toing private tutoring and those who do non, and ( 3 ) social affects of private tutoring. Before researching each of these subjects in more deepness, it is of import to supply a few descriptive statistics on the strength and signifier of private tutoring within our sample.General features of Rien KuoOf the 282 pupils tracked in class 9, 193 pupils ( 68.4 per centum ) attended at least one private tutoring category during the clip of the informations aggregation. At the primary school degree, the range of private tutoring was lower, with 41.3 per ce ntum of all surveyed pupils ( 67 out of 162 ) go toing private tutoring. The strength of private tutoring varied by topic in class 9, with 57 per centum of surveyed pupils go toing private tutoring in mathematics, 54 per centum in Khmer linguistic communication, and 37 per centum in chemical science ( see Table 6 ) . Comparing the strength among topics, a similar per centum of pupils accompanied private tutoring lessons in Khmer linguistic communication and mathematics, but a smaller per centum of pupils accompanied chemical science lessons. One account for the difference in frequence between Khmer linguistic communication and mathematics with chemical science is the manner in which classs are calculated. Each month instructors administer their ain capable scrutinies to their categories. These scrutinies are neither standardized in footings of content nor monitored in footings of rating rubrics. The tonss across all topics are so added for each pupil and divided by the entire figure of possible points, which varies by month depending on the topics covered. Average capable and overall classs are reported monthly on pupil mark sheets, bespeaking the ranking of the pupil among his or her schoolmates. Across all degrees of schooling, the topics of Khmer linguistic communication and mathematics account for 100 points ( sometimes more[ 12 ]) while the other topics merely account for 50 points on monthly mark sheets. This means hiting higher in Khmer linguistic communication or mathematics will hold a greater positive impact on pupils overall grade each month than making good on topics like chemical science, which merely account for 50 points.[ 13 ] A farther analysis of informations by geographic location ( rural versus urban ) reveals a higher strength of private tutoring usage in urban countries compared to rural countries. In primary schools, for illustration, 60.5 per centum of urban pupils attended private tutoring categories compared to 26.4 per centum of pupils in rural countries. The one exclusion within our informations set is for Khmer linguistic communication private tutoring in class 9 where more rural pupils attended private tutoring than urban pupils. This divergent determination can be explained in two ways. First, it can be partly attributed to parental pick. If parents can merely afford private tutoring in one topic, Khmer linguistic communication was perceived as most valuable because of the rating policies described above and the general perceptual experience that literacy is a necessary life accomplishment. Second, within the rural categories tracked, 19 pupils who attended private tutoring were supported ( i.e. , provided money to go to private tutoring ) by an NGO. Without fiscal support to pay the private tutoring fees, these 19 pupils would most probably non hold attended the excess classs in any topic. Controling for these pupils, we find that merely 39 per centum of pupils attend Khmer linguistic communication private tutoring in the rural school compared to 52 per centum in the urban school. This is in understanding with the general determination of a higher strength of private tutoring within urban schools. There were besides noticeable differences between authorities school and private tutoring category sizes. Since Rien Kuo is seldom offered in a one-on-one scene and is alternatively taught to larger groups of pupils, it closely resembles categories in mainstream schools. Nevertheless, Rien Kuo category sizes are by and large smaller than those in mainstream schools.[ 14 ]Based on our observations and attending trailing, the mean category size of authorities school in class 9 ( both urban and rural ) was 42 pupils. By contrast, private tutoring categories were, on norm, 21 pupils. Interrupting these informations down by location, we find that the mean category size in authorities school is 56 pupils in the urban lower secondary school and 35 pupils in the rural lower secondary school. By contrast, private tutoring categories were on mean 37 pupils and 17 pupils in urban and rural schools, severally. This suggests that private tutoring categories are ( 1 ) smaller than authorities scho ol irrespective the location, and ( 2 ) urban countries have larger category sizes in both authorities school categories and private tutoring lessons compared to rural countries.Table 6. Intensity of Private Tutoring by Subject, Grade 9Students in authorities categoryStudents in private tutoring% of pupils in private tutoringMathematicssUrban 58 35 60.34 Rural 113 63 55.75 Entire 171 98 57.31ChemistryUrban 95 58 61.05 Rural 113 19 16.81 Entire 208 77 37.02Khmer LanguageUrban 90 47 52.22 Rural 113 64 56.64 Entire 203 111 54.68Course of study differencesGiven that Rien Kuo by and large takes topographic point on school evidences, normally in the same schoolrooms where authorities school categories are held, there are some interesting continuities between Rien Kuo and mainstream schooling. Data collected from schoolroom observations and triangulated with interviews and concentrate groups suggest that private tutoring is in many respects a continuance of authorities school in footings of learning methodological analysis and course of study content ( see Table 7 ) . For illustration, instructors appear to delegate prep ( 43 per centum of private tutoring categories observed and 64 in authorities categories ) and even present new stuff in private tutoring lessons ( 36 per centum of the private tutoring categories and 79 per centum of authorities categories ) . Likewise, pupils appear to be involved in similar activities in both authorities categories and private tutoring lessons, including replying multip le pick inquiries ( 14 per centum ) and reacting to instructors give illustration to whole category ( 78 per centum ) .Table 7. Similarities between Government School and Private Tutoring ClasssTeacher PedagogyGovernment SchoolN=14% of categories observed ( figure of categories observed )Private TutoringN=14% of categories observed ( figure of categories observed ) High ability pupils work with low ability pupils 28.6 ( 4 ) 14.3 ( 2 ) High ability pupils help learn whole category 71.4 ( 10 ) 50.0 ( 7 ) Name on weak pupils to reply inquiries 50.0 ( 7 ) 42.9 ( 6 ) Students answer multiple pick inquiries 14.3 ( 2 ) 14.3 ( 2 ) Students answer inquiries at board 100.0 ( 14 ) 71.4 ( 10 ) Teacher assigns prep 64.3 ( 9 ) 42.9 ( 6 ) Teacher nowadayss new stuff 78.6 ( 11 ) 35.7 ( 5 ) Teacher provides whole category direction 100.0 ( 14 ) 85.7 ( 12 ) Students answer in chorus 71.4 ( 10 ) 64.3 ( 9 ) Teacher gives illustration to whole category 78.6 ( 11 ) 78.6 ( 11 ) The focal point groups with instructors provided in-depth qualitative information to congratulate the observations sing learning methodological analysis and the course of study used in authorities school categories and private tutoring lessons. The first subject that emerged in the focal point groups was the overpowering sentiment that the national course of study is excessively long to finish during authorities school hours. Some instructors said they had to â€Å" hotfoot † through the course of study to complete on clip and feared being held accountable for non completing. For illustration, one instructor who conducts private tutoring explained: We rush to maintain up with the course of study. [ During official school hours ] , we teach merely theory and give merely a few illustrations. If pupils go to private tutoring, they can pattern [ at the board ] because there are fewer pupils who goaˆÂ ¦We can non acquire all pupils to pattern [ at the board ] in authorities category. It requires a batch of clip. The â€Å" haste † to complete the course of study is a consequence of a course of study excessively â€Å" full † to finish during the allotted clip. One history instructor who sends his kids to private tutoring explained: â€Å" [ The ministry ] allows small clip [ to learn ] . I teach based on the [ allowed ] clip. If the course of study is non finished, [ so ] I allow it travel because there is non adequate clip. [ Although ] I try my best, it is still impossible [ to learn everything ] . † The bulk of instructors agreed that the course of study clip provided by the MoEYS was non sufficient for pupils to pattern the theory they learned during school hours and that they conducted private tutoring to supply more pattern clip for pupils to complement the cognition gained. In other words, private tutoring provided the necessary clip to complete the course of study to a perceived higher criterion. As one instructor who does non carry on private tutoring explained, â€Å" Private tutoring instructors take the lessons learned in the authorities category and supply more pattern in private tutoring. They even add more [ stuff excluded in the authorities category ] . † From instructors ‘ positions, quality instruction could non be achieved during regular school hours. One of the